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Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE, Trojan War

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 23 février 2019

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Corps d’Hector ramené à Troie, bas-relief d’un sarcophage romain, v. 180–200, musée du Louvre.

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Homer, der überlieferte Verfasser der Ilias; römische Kopie aus dem 2. Jahrhundert n. Chr. eines hellenistischen Originals. British Museum, London

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Die Ilias in einer Handschrift des 15. Jahrhunderts mit Miniaturen von Francesco Rosselli. Florenz, Plut. 32.4, fol. 43r

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Der Anfang der Ilias in der Handschrift Rom, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vaticanus Palatinus graecus 246, fol. 1r (15. Jahrhundert)

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Dolon vêtu de sa peau de loup, lécythe à figures rouges, v. 460 av. J.-C., .

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Achille sacrifiant à Zeus, manuscrit de l’Iliade de la Bibliothèque Ambrosienne de Milan (Ve siècle)

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Astyanax, sur les genoux d’Andromaque, essaie d’attraper le casque de son père Hector, cratère à colonne apulien à figures rouges, ca.370–360 av. J.-C., musée national du palais Jatta à Ruvo di Puglia (Bari).

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Hélène et Pâris, détail d’un cratèreen cloche apulien à figures rouges, vers -380–-370, musée du Louvre

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Iliad VIII 245-253 in codex F205 (Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosiana), late 5th or early 6th c. AD

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Achilles tending Patroclus wounded by an arrow, identified by inscriptions on the upper part of the vase. Tondo of an Attic red-figure kylix, ca. 500 BC. From Vulci.

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Ritratto immaginario di Omero, copia romana del II secolod.C. di un’opera greca del II secolo a.C. Conservato al Museo del Louvre di Parigi.

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Andromaca osserva dalle mura di Troia Achille che trascina il corpo di Ettore legato al suo carro. Frammento di sarcofago calcareo, fine del II secolo d.C. Da Reggio Calabria. Conservato al Museo Nazionale Archeologico di Reggio di Calabria.

JASTROW own work, from the Iliade exhibition at the Colosseum, September 2006–February 2007

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Agamemnon seated on a rock and holding his sceptre, identified from an inscription. Fragment of the lid of an Attic red-figure lekanis by the circle of the Meidias Painter, 410–400 BC. From the contrada Santa Lucia in Taranto. Stored in the Museo Nazionale Archeologico in Taranto (Italy).

JASTROW own work, from the Iliade exhibition at the Colosseum, September 2006–February 2007

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Thétis donne à son fils Achille ses armes nouvellement forgées par Héphaïstos, détail d’une hydrie attiqueà figures noires, v. 575–550 av. J.-C., musée du Louvre.

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Statue de la personnification de l’Iliade, placée dans la bibliothèque de Pantainos à Athènes, musée de l’Agora antique d’Athènes.

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Achille sacrifiant à Zeus, manuscrit de l’Iliade de la Bibliothèque Ambrosienne de Milan (v^e siècle).

Auteur

Homère

Pays

Grèce antique

Genre

Épopée mythologique

Version originale

Langue

Grec ancien

Titre

Ἰλιάς

Lieu de parution

Grèce antique

Date de parution

viii^e siècle

Ouvrages du cycle

cycle troyen

Chronologie

L’Iliade (en grec ancien Ἰλιάς / Iliás, en grec moderne Ιλιάδα / Iliáda) est une épopée de la Grèce antiqueattribuée à l’aède légendaire Homère. Ce nom provient de la périphrase « le poème d’Ilion » (ἡ Ἰλιὰς ποίησις / hê Iliàs poíêsis), Ilion(Ἴλιον / Ílion) étant l’autre nom de la ville de Troie.

L’Iliade est composé de 15 337 hexamètres dactyliques et, depuis l’époque hellénistique, divisée en vingt-quatre chants. Le texte a probablement été composé entre -850 et -750, soit quatre siècles après la période à laquelle les historiens font correspondre la guerre mythique qu’il relate. Il n’a été fixé par écrit que sous Pisistrate, au vi^e siècle av. J.-C.. Dans l’Antiquité, l’Iliade faisait partie d’un cycle épique, le cycle troyen, mais seules l’Iliade et l’Odyssée en ont été conservées.

L’épopée se déroule pendant la guerre de Troie dans laquelle s’affrontent les Achéens venus de toute la Grèce et les Troyens et leurs alliés, chaque camp étant soutenu par diverses divinités comme Athéna, Poséidon ou Apollon. L’Iliade détaille les événements survenus pendant quelques semaines de la dixième et dernière année de la guerre. Après un siège de dix ans, le sort des armes hésite encore. Achille est le meilleur guerrier de l’armée achéenne. Mais une querelle avec le roi Agamemnon, chef des Achéens, met Achille en colère et il décide de se retirer du combat, ce qui menace de retourner le sort de la guerre en faveur des Troyens, galvanisés par Hector, le meilleur guerrier de Troie. Le récit culmine avec le retour d’Achille au combat et son duel contre Hector, puis les outrages infligés par Achille au corps de son ennemi vaincu. L’Iliadese termine avec les funérailles d’Hector. Le dénouement laisse entendre une victoire prochaine des Achéens.

L’Iliade forme, avec l’Odyssée, l’une des deux grandes épopées fondatrices de la littérature grecque antique. Dès l’Antiquité, elle fait l’objet de nombreux commentaires et interprétations et engendre une postérité abondante, dont la principale épopée mythologique romaine, l’Énéide de Virgile, au Ier siècle avant J.-C. Connue au Moyen âge par des réécritures latines, l’Iliade est redécouverte dans son texte grec à la Renaissance. À partir de la fin du xviii^e siècle, la compréhension du texte et de ses origines est renouvelée peu à peu par la question homérique qui remet en cause l’existence d’Homère. L’épopée continue d’inspirer les artistes et de susciter l’intérêt des hellénistes et des historiens jusqu’à nos jours.

Invocation

Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεὰ, Πηληιάδεω Ἀχιλῆος	« Chante, ô déesse, le courroux du Péléide Achille,	« Déesse chante-nous la colère d’Achille, de ce fils de Pélée,
οὐλομένην, ἣ μυpί’ Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε’ ἔθηκε,	Courroux fatal qui causa mille maux aux Achéens	colère détestable qui valut aux Argiens d’innombrables malheurs,
πολλὰς δ’ ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προῒαψεν	Et fit descendre chez Hadès tant d’âmes valeureuses	et jeta dans l’Hadès tant d’âmes
ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ’ ἐτελείετο βουλή¹·	De héros, dont les corps servirent de pâture aux chiens Et aux oiseaux sans nombre : ainsi Zeus l’avait-il voulu². »	de héros, livrant leurs corps en proie aux oiseaux comme aux chiens : ainsi s’accomplissait la volonté de Zeus³. »

Le premier terme, μῆνις / mễnis, qui veut dire « colère », est toujours employé pour qualifier une colère divine, funeste. Achille est le seul mortel dont la colère soit appelée μῆνις dans tout le corpushomérique. C’est bien cette colère inhumaine qui est le thème-clef de l’épopée.

Résumé

: Guerre de Troie.

La guerre de Troie dure depuis bientôt dix ans. Elle oppose les Achéens venus de toute la Grèce, aux Troyens et leurs alliés. Face à la cité fortifiée, les centaines de navires des assiégeants reposent sur la plage et leur servent de campement. L’Iliade relate, dans l’ordre chronologique, six journées et nuits de la guerre ; le chant XXIV se déroule douze jours après les événements du chant XXIII⁴. En aucune partie du texte n’est annoncée la prise de Troie grâce à la ruse du cheval de bois.

Premier jour : la dispute

Chant I : la peste et la querelle

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Chrysès offrant à Agamemnon une rançon pour Chryséis, cratère apulien à figures rouges du Peintre d’Athènes 1714, v. 360–-350, musée du Louvre

Agamemnon, le chef des Achéens, retient prisonnière Chryséis, la fille de Chrysès, un prêtre troyen d’Apollon. En représailles, le dieu Apollon a envoyé une pestemeurtrière sur toute l’armée achéenne. Le devin Calchasrévélant la cause du mal, Achilleadjure Agamemnon de rendre la prisonnière. Le roi finit par y consentir, mais décide de prendre en dédommagement Briséis, une belle Troyenne captive d’Achille. Furieux et se sentant spolié, ce dernier décide de cesser de combattre avec ses Myrmidons aux côtés des Achéens. Il invoque sa mère, la Néréide Thétis, qui obtient de Zeus la promesse d’une victoire troyenne.

Deuxième jour : trêve et bataille

Chant II : le rêve trompeur et le catalogue des vaisseaux

Catalogue des vaisseaux et Catalogue des Troyens.

Trompé dans son sommeil par un songe envoyé par Zeus, Agamemnon s’éveille certain de la victoire de ses troupes. Lors du conseil des chefs, il raconte précisément son rêve à quelques-uns de ses plus proches, puis pour mettre l’ensemble des troupes à l’épreuve feint de vouloir quitter le siège de Troie. Les guerriers préparent leur retour après neuf années de siège, mais Ulysse, roi d’Ithaque, parvient à les dissuader de partir. Les deux armées s’apprêtent à combattre et le narrateur détaille les forces en présence dans un passage traditionnellement appelé le Catalogue des vaisseaux suivi du Catalogue des Troyens : les Achéens venus de toute la Grècesur un grand nombre de vaisseaux feront face aux troupes des chefs troyens et de leurs alliés dardaniens, Lyciens, Phrygiens et Thraces.

Chant III : début de la trêve et combat singulier entre Pâris et Ménélas

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Hélène et Pâris, détail d’un cratèreen cloche apulien à figures rouges, vers -380–-370, musée du Louvre

Le troyen Pâris, fils du roi Priam, est saisi d’effroi à la vue de Ménélas, dont il a enlevé l’épouse, Hélène, cause du conflit. Suite aux durs reproches de son frère, le vaillant Hector, Pâris propose aux Achéens un combat singulier l’opposant à Ménélas, afin d’éviter une hécatombe à son peuple. Tandis que, du haut des remparts de Troie, Hélène énonce les chefs grecs à Priam, le pacte est conclu. Le duel s’engage, tournant rapidement à l’avantage de Ménélas, combattant expérimenté, au détriment du frêle et jeune Pâris. Mais celui-ci est sauvé d’une mort certaine par l’intervention divine d’Aphrodite, qui le soustrait au combat et le dépose dans Troie.

Chant IV : la rupture de la trêve[modifier | modifier le code]

Sur l’Olympe, Zeus souhaite faire reconnaître la victoire de Ménélas, afin qu’une paix soit conclue, épargnant ainsi la ville. Mais Héra, qui souhaite ardemment la victoire des Achéens, demande à Athéna de pousser les Troyens à violer leurs serments de paix. Athéna convainc alors Pandare de décocher une flèche à Ménélas afin de briser la trêve, ce qui survient effectivement.

Pendant la revue de ses troupes, Agamemnon exhorte au combat les plus grands de ses chefs — Idoménée, les deux Ajax (Ajax fils de Télamon et Ajax fils d’Oïlée), Nestor, Ulysse et Diomède — et les combats reprennent.

Chant V : l’aristie de Diomède

Dans la furie de la bataille, les Achéens galvanisés massacrent un grand nombre de Troyens. Diomèdes’illustre en particulier, soutenu par Athéna, au cours d’une aristie, en tuant, entre autres, Pandare, et en blessant Énée et sa mère, la déesse Aphrodite, venue le secourir. Les dieux s’impliquent alors dans les combats : Apollon sauve Énée en le soustrayant au champ de bataille et exhorte son frère Arès à s’engager aux côtés des Troyens. Ces derniers se ressaisissent et Hector, enflammé par les paroles de Sarpédon, mène ses troupes au combat avec le soutien d’Arès. Inquiètes de ce retournement de situation, Héra et Athéna s’arment et apportent leur secours aux Achéens défaits par le dieu de la guerre, qui est à son tour blessé par Diomède, seul mortel à pouvoir apercevoir les dieux. Enfin, dieux et déesses remontent à l’Olympe porter leur discorde devant Zeus.

Chant VI : bataille et arrivée d’Hector

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Le combat continue de faire rage, les meilleurs guerriers des deux camps s’affrontant mortellement. Cependant, après avoir évoqué les liens d’hospitalité qui unissaient naguère leurs ancêtres, Diomède et Glaucos le Lycien cessent leur duel et échangent des présents. Hector se retire du combat et regagne la ville où il demande à Hécube, sa mère, de prier Athéna pour la victoire des Troyens. Les femmes rejoignent le temple de la déesse. Près des portes Scées, Hector fait ses adieux à son épouse, Andromaque, et à son tout jeune fils Astyanax. Il retrouve ensuite son frère Pâris et le convainc de rejoindre la bataille avec lui.

Chant VII : duel entre Hector et Ajax

Guidé par les plans d’Apollon et d’Athéna, Hector provoque les chefs grecs en duel. C’est Ajax, le fils de Télamon qui est tiré au sort pour l’affronter. À la faveur de la nuit, le duel doit cesser sans qu’un vainqueur puisse être désigné, bien qu’Hector soit blessé. Les deux hommes, en signe d’estime et de respect, s’offrent de nombreux présents. Une trêve temporaire est décidée par les deux camps. Elle est mise à profit pour honorer les nombreux morts qui jonchent le champ de bataille. Les Achéens décident et mettent en œuvre la construction d’un fossé et d’un mur devant leurs navires tirés sur la plage.

Troisième jour : l’ambassade à Achille et la Dolonie

Chant VIII : nouvelle bataille et succès troyens

Au petit jour, Zeus exige des dieux qu’ils restent neutres. Depuis les sommets du mont Ida surplombant le champ de bataille, il pèse sur sa balance d’or les destinées des deux armées. Celle-ci penche en faveur des Troyens et de fait, dès la reprise des combats, ils prennent l’avantage grâce à la fougue d’Hector, qui pousse ses troupes vers le rivage et les remparts des Achéens. Athéna et Héra ne peuvent rester sans agir face au repli des Grecs. Elles désobéissent à Zeus en secourant ces derniers, mais sont rapidement et vertement rappelées à l’ordre. Quand la nuit tombe, pour ne pas perdre leur avantage, cinquante mille Troyens campent dans la plaine.

Chant IX : l’ambassade auprès d’Achille

Dans le campement achéen, l’inquiétude est grande. Agamemnon évoque la possibilité d’abandonner le siège et de rentrer en Grèce, ce à quoi Ulysse et Nestor sont farouchement opposés. La solution serait de ramener Achille à la raison et de le convaincre de se joindre au combat. Agamemnon est prêt à s’excuser, à rendre Briséis et à couvrir Achille de présents, immédiatement et dans le futur par la promesse d’union avec l’une de ses filles et le don de plusieurs de ses cités en Argos. Il lui envoie Ulysse, Ajax et Phénix en ambassade afin de le convaincre. Achille reçoit dignement et écoute ses compagnons mais reste inflexible : il a l’intention de regagner sa patrie dès le lendemain — tout en évoquant la possibilité de demeurer sur place — et propose à Phénix de se joindre à lui. Ulysse et Ajax s’en retournent annoncer la mauvaise nouvelle à Agamemnon. Dans le Cratyle de Platon, Cratylenous apprend que l’épisode de l’ambassade auprès d’Achille était appelé Les Prières (Λιταῖ)⁵.

Chant X : la Dolonie

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Dolon vêtu de sa peau de loup, lécythe à figures rouges, v. 460 av. J.-C., musée du Louvre.

Afin de connaître les intentions des Troyens, le chef des Achéens, sur les conseils du sage Nestor, décide d’envoyer Diomède et Ulysse espionner leurs ennemis. Dans le camp adverse, Hector envoie Dolonen reconnaissance près du campement des Grecs. Mais Dolon est capturé par les deux espions achéens puis exécuté par Diomède après avoir livré des renseignements stratégiques et malgré ses suppliques. Poussant leur avantage, Ulysse et Diomède massacrent les chefs thraces, alliés des Troyens, endormis près du feu et ramènent leurs chevaux auprès des navires. Cet exploit ravive l’espoir d’une victoire prochaine parmi les Achéens. Cet épisode est appelé la « Dolonie » d’après le nom de Dolon.

Chant XI : nouveaux succès troyens

Au matin, la bataille reprend, et sous la pression des exploits d’Agamemnon, les Troyens reculent jusqu’aux remparts de leur cité. Mais Zeus envoie sa messagère Irisassurer Hector de son soutien et lui indiquer de contre-attaquer dès qu’Agamemnon sera blessé, ce qui finit par survenir. Ulysse, Diomède, Machaon et Eurypyle sont touchés à leur tour et les Grecs se replient vers leurs tentes. Achille, inquiet de voir revenir tant de braves guerriers durement blessés, s’inquiète de la tournure que prennent les évènements et demande à Patrocle de s’en enquérir. Sur les conseils de son compagnon, il court s’informer auprès du vieux sage Nestor qui lui demande d’aller convaincre Achille de reprendre le combat. Mais Patrocle va porter secours à Eurypyle dans sa tente. Le moral des Achéens est à nouveau au plus bas.

Chant XII : les Troyens assiègent le campement achéen

Ayant poursuivi les fuyards dans la plaine, ce sont désormais les Troyens et leurs alliés qui assiègent leurs ennemis avec une grande force. Sous les violents assauts d’Asios, de Sarpédon et Glaucos, les remparts vacillent, malgré la résistance héroïque des meilleurs combattants achéens. Enfin, Zeus accorde à Hector de franchir le large fossé à la tête de ses troupes et de fracasser les lourdes portes du campement. Les combattants troyens se ruent dans cette brèche. À l’intérieur des remparts, Hector fait rage, selon les desseins de Zeus.

Chant XIII : intervention de Poséidon

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Poséidon, plaque corinthienne à figures noires, v. 550–525 av. J.-C., musée du Louvre.

Refusant la défaite imminente des Achéens et la mise à sac de leur camp et de leurs navires, Poséidonlui-même s’engage dans la bataille. Ainsi stimulés, Idoménée et Mérion, en furie, massacrent de nombreux Troyens, parmi lesquels Asios et son aurige Alcathoos. Les Troyens Énée, Pâris, Hélénos et Déiphobes’illustrent également par leur bravoure et leurs ravages.

Malgré ces actes valeureux, les combattants troyens se replient temporairement sous une contre-attaque des grecs. Mais épaulés par Zeus, ils reprennent le dessus et réinvestissent rapidement le campement achéen.

Chant XIV : la ruse d’Héra

La situation est désespérée et Agamemnon propose à nouveau de sonner la retraite, mais Poséidon exhorte les Grecs, leur redonnant confiance. Héra détourne Zeus de la bataille grâce à un ruban avec lequel elle le séduit et le laisse endormi sur les cimes du Gargareaprès l’amour : cette scène fait partie de la Dios apatè (traduit par « tromperie de Zeus » ou encore « Zeus berné »). Zeus ainsi neutralisé, Poséidon peut désormais secourir efficacement les Achéens, qui mènent une contre-attaque rageuse et victorieuse, tuant de nombreux Troyens. Hector lui-même est blessé et doit être évacué par ses compagnons auprès du fleuve Scamandre. Aristophane et Aristarque de Samothracecondamnent l’épisode du « Sortilège du ruban »⁶, le jugeant inconvenant : Zeus y énumère ses infidélités passées, pour faire comprendre à son épouse qu’il est plus amoureux d’elle à ce moment-là que de ses amantes quand il les a aimées.

Chant XV : bataille près des navires achéens

À son réveil, Zeus, furieux d’avoir été trompé par sa femme Héra, intime à Poséidon l’ordre de se tenir à l’écart de la lutte. Préoccupé par le sort d’Hector, il envoie à son chevet Apollon, qui a tôt fait de le guérir et l’inspirer. Le valeureux Troyen peut alors à nouveau semer la mort et la panique dans les rangs des Grecs. Patrocle, effrayé, quitte son ami Eurypyle pour accourir vers Achille. Malgré une résistance héroïque d’Ajax auprès des navires, les Achéens épuisés cèdent et Hector arrive jusqu’aux premier rang de nefs pour commencer à y mettre le feu.

Chant XVI : exploits et mort de Patrocle

Devant l’urgence de la situation, Achille autorise Patrocle à mener les Myrmidons au combat à condition qu’il se contente de repousser les assaillants sans chercher à prendre la cité de Troie. Ayant revêtu les armes divines qu’Achille lui a prêtées, Patrocle exhorte les Myrmidons. Il parvient à faire reculer les combattants troyens et tue Sarpédon que Zeus se résigne, attristé, à voir périr. Apollon est envoyé pour récupérer son corps sans vie et l’envoyer en Lycie, et pour donner à Hector de l’ardeur au combat. Grisé par ses succès, Patrocle désobéit à Achille et pousse sa contre-attaque jusqu’aux remparts de Troie tuant encore le conducteur du char d’Hector. Il est alors frappé dans le dos par Apollon, puis par Euphorbe, et achevé par le prince troyen.

Chant XVII : bataille autour du corps de Patrocle

S’engage alors une âpre bataille autour du corps de Patrocle : Hector et Énée tentent de s’en emparer ainsi que des chevaux d’Achille. Mais les Achéens, Ménélas et Ajax en particulier, défendent héroïquement la dépouille de leur compagnon. Hector parvient cependant à en arracher les armes d’Achille, son casque et son armure, dont il se revêt. Inspiré par Zeus, il repousse les combattants achéens vers les nefs, qui, soutenus par Mérion et les deux Ajax, finissent par emporter le corps de Patrocle dans leur campement.

Chant XVIII : les armes et le bouclier d’Achille

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Thétis donne à son fils Achille ses armes nouvellement forgées par Héphaïstos, détail d’une hydrie attiqueà figures noires, v. 575–550 av. J.-C., musée du Louvre.

C’est à Antiloque que revient la lourde tâche d’informer Achille de la mort de son compagnon. Accablé de douleur, couvert de cendres et prostré à terre, Achille jure de le venger au plus vite. Sa mère Thétis lui demande de patienter une nuit, afin de permettre à Héphaïstos de lui forger de nouvelles armes. Le dieu boiteux se met au travail. Achille quitte sa tente et bondit hors du camp pour crier sa douleur et sa rage, et ses hurlements épouvantent les Troyens. De leur côté, ceux-ci tiennent conseil, et le sage Polydamas prodigue à Hector des conseils de prudence que ce dernier ignore. Son labeur achevé, Héphaïstos remet à Thétis un bouclier étincelant et magnifiquement orné, une cuirasse, un casque et des cnémidessplendides pour Achille.

Cinquième jour : le retour d’Achille au combat et la mort d’Hector

Chant XIX : la réconciliation

Devant l’armée achéenne, Achille se réconcilie avec Agamemnon. En échange de sa bonne volonté, il reçoit comme prévu un grand nombre de présents, dont la belle Briséis, qu’Agamemnon jure n’avoir jamais possédée. En préparation de la bataille à venir, les guerriers se restaurent, mais Achille, voulant se consacrer uniquement à la vengeance de son compagnon, refuse toute nourriture. Équipé de ses nouvelles armes, il souhaite partir au combat sur le champ, malgré les avertissements de son cheval Xanthos qui lui promet une mort prochaine.

Chant XX : retour d’Achille au combat

La discorde règne chez les dieux, que Zeus autorise à intervenir dans la bataille. Chacun choisit son camp et fourbit ses armes. Malgré l’épouvante des Troyens à la vue d’Achille, Énée s’élance vaillamment contre lui, inspiré par Apollon. Loin d’égaler Achille au combat, il est vaincu mais sauvé par Poséidon. Hector et Achille, parvenus à portée de voix, commencent à s’affronter, mais Apollon, inquiet pour la vie d’Hector, fait disparaître celui-ci du champ de bataille. Furieux, Achille fait un grand massacre parmi les Troyens affolés.

Chant XXI : exploits d’Achille et bataille des dieux

Sous les coups d’Achille, de nombreux combattants de Troie se jettent et périssent dans le fleuve Scamandre, révolté d’être ainsi souillé du sang des guerriers. Aidé du fleuve Simoïs, le Scamandre combat farouchement Achille, manquant de le noyer. Héra envoie alors Héphaïstos, qui parvient à faire reculer le fleuve par un feu divin brûlant et évaporant ses eaux. Dans la bataille, Apollon dresse Agénor contre Achille, puis finit par prendre sa place, simule la fuite afin qu’Achille lui coure après, autorisant ainsi la retraite des Troyens qui s’engouffrent tous dans les portes de la cité.

Chant XXII : duel d’Achille et d’Hector

Hector, malgré les supplications de ses parents, Priam et Hécube, s’est résolu à combattre Achille et l’attend seul, devant les remparts de Troie. Mais à la vue de son ennemi, il est épouvanté et dans un premier temps prend la fuite. Tandis qu’Achille poursuit Hector sur trois tours des murs de la cité, Zeus pèse sur sa balance d’or les destinées des deux guerriers : Hector est condamné. Athéna, déguisée, ramène Hector à la raison et le convainc d’affronter son destin et Achille. Le combat ne dure guère mais avant de mourir — frappé par la pique d’Achille au cou, au seul endroit où la cuirasse, qui fut celle du Peléide prise sur la dépouille de Patrocle, ne le protège pas —, Hector révèle à Achille qu’il périra sous le trait de son jeune frère Pâris. Le vainqueur se saisit de la dépouille de son ennemi qu’il attache à son char par les tendons des chevilles et traîne jusqu’aux vaisseaux grecs sous les yeux éplorés des Troyennes, parmi lesquelles Andromaque, l’épouse d’Hector.

Sixième jour : les funérailles de Patrocle

Chant XXIII : funérailles et jeux funèbres de Patrocle

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Corps d’Hector ramené à Troie, bas-relief d’un sarcophage romain, v. 180–200, musée du Louvre.

Patrocle apparait en songe à son compagnon qui tente vainement de le saisir dans ses bras. Tous les Achéens se consacrent au deuil : de nombreux sacrifices sont consentis (bœufs, chevaux, servantes et douze jeunes Troyens sont immolés) et la dépouille du jeune homme est brûlée selon la tradition. Un tombeau est élevé, et les cendres et os de Patrocle sont recueillis en attendant d’être réunis avec ceux d’Achille. Ce dernier organise des jeux funèbres qu’il dote de nombreux prix. Ainsi les guerriers peuvent montrer leur valeur à la course de char, au pugilat, à la lutte, à la course à pied ou encore aux lancers.

Douze jours après : les funérailles d’Hector

Chant XXIV : ambassade de Priam et funérailles d’Hector

Achille ne peut trouver le sommeil. Pendant onze jours, il traîne chaque matin le corps d’Hector avec son char autour du tombeau de Patrocle. Mais les dieux, prenant en pitié la famille du Troyen, réprouvent son comportement et, par un procédé divin, conservent à la dépouille son bel aspect. Zeus exige de Thétis qu’elle aille convaincre son fils de rendre la dépouille à Priam. Priam, protégé par Hermès, traverse en secret les lignes ennemies pour être reçu dans la tente d’Achille. Là, il supplie ce dernier au nom de Pélée de lui rendre son fils en échange de présents. Achille y consent et propose à Priam le gîte et le couvert. Conciliant, Achille accepte également de retenir les troupes achéennes pendant douze jours, le temps pour les Troyens d’organiser des funérailles décentes à Hector. De retour à Troie, le corps du prince est présenté à la foule en larmes et de longues funérailles sont organisées.

Les personnages de l’Iliade

Catalogue des vaisseaux.

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Carte de la Grèce homérique.

Dans son récit, Homère cite un grand nombre de héros de chaque camp, mais les Dieux et autres divinités sont également présents et influents.

Grecs

Achille, fils de Pélée et de Thétis, roi des Myrmidons
Patrocle, compagnon d’Achille
Agamemnon, roi de Mycènes, chef de l’expédition grecque.
Ménélas, roi de Sparte et frère d’Agamemnon
Hélène, épouse de Ménélas
Ulysse, roi d’Ithaque
Nestor, roi de Pylos
Ajax fils d’Oïlée ou Ajax le petit, roi de Locride
Ajax fils de Télamon, roi de Salamine
Calchas, devin
Diomède, fils de Tydée, roi d’Argos
Idoménée, roi de Crète
Phénix, fils d’Amyntor, éducateur d’Achille.

Troyens

Priam, roi de Troie
Hécube, femme de Priam, reine de Troie
Hector, fils aîné de Priam
Pâris, fils de Priam, séducteur d’Hélène
Cassandre, fille de Priam, prêtresse
Andromaque, femme d’Hector
Énée, fils d’Anchise
Sarpédon, chef des Lyciens
Pylémène, chef des Paphlagoniens
Pandare, un des généraux de Zélée
Phorcys, un des généraux de Phrygie
Glaucos, un des généraux de Lycie
Laocoon, prêtre de Poséidon

Divinités

Zeus, roi des Dieux
Poséidon, frère de Zeus et roi des océans, fils de Cronos et de Rhéa
Héra, sœur et épouse de Zeus
Apollon, fils de Zeus et de Léto
Héphaïstos, fils de Zeus et d’Héra
Athéna, fille de Zeus
Aphrodite, fille de Zeus et de Dioné
Thétis, mère d’Achille
Hermès, fils de Zeus
Xanthe, dieu fleuve
Arès, dieu de la guerre fils de Zeus et d’Héra
Hypnos, le Sommeil

Nombre de morts par héros dans l’Iliade

Tandis que 150 Troyens sont tués, seulement 44 Achéens meurent au cours de l’Iliade.

Du côté troyen, Hector en tue 28, Énée 6, Pâris 3 et Sarpédon1.
Du côté grec, Achille en tue 24, Diomède 16, Agamemnon 11, Ajax, fils de Télamon, 15 et Ménélas 8.

L’héroïsme d’Achille

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Statue de la personnification de l’Iliade, placée dans la bibliothèque de Pantainos à Athènes, musée de l’Agora antique d’Athènes.

Henri-Irénée Marrou explique dans son Histoire de l’éducation dans l’Antiquité^[Où ?] (1948) que

« Beaucoup plus que l’Ulysse du Retour, c’est la noble et pure figure d’Achille qui incarne l’idéal moral du parfait chevalier homérique ; il se définit d’un mot : une morale héroïque de l’honneur. C’est dans Homère que chaque génération antique a trouvé ce qui est l’axe fondamental de cette éthique aristocratique : l’amour de la gloire. »

Deux types de gloires, d’honneurs (τιμή / timḗ) sont montrées dans l’Iliade :

l’honneur du chef, celui d’Agamemnon, le rang social ;
l’honneur du guerrier, la gloire personnelle, celle que recherche Achille.

L’Iliade voit le triomphe de la gloire vantée par Achille, κλέος ἄφθιτον / kléos áphthiton, la « gloire impérissable »⁷, qui s’acquiert par une « belle mort », jeune, sur le champ de bataille.

Plus tard, cet amour de la gloire personnelle sera transformé. Tyrtée, le poète spartiate, chante ainsi la gloire immortelle qu’il y a à défendre sa patrie : pour le guerrier mort ainsi, « jamais sa noble gloire ne périt, ni son nom, mais bien qu’il demeure sous terre, il est immortel »⁸. Dans l’Iliade, Achille n’est pas un guerrier patriote. Quand il reprend les armes, ce n’est pas pour les Grecs qu’il combat. Son départ pour Troie, ses combats, sa colère et sa décision de reprendre les armes sont profondément individuels, voire égoïstes. Et quand il décide d’affronter Hector, sachant qu’il mourra ensuite s’il le fait, ce n’est pas pour les Grecs mais pour venger Patrocle.^{[réf. nécessaire]}

L’Iliade représente une lente décomposition des valeurs et des codes héroïques et chevaleresques, le cosmos (κόσμος, univers ordonné) pour basculer dans la sauvagerie, le chaos. Selon Jean-Pierre Vernant⁹, les héros grecs comme troyens cessent progressivement de considérer l’adversaire comme le partenaire d’un combat loyal pour le transformer en proie — témoin la mutilation sauvage par Achille du corps d’Hector. Cette sauvagerie n’est rédimée qu’à la fin de l’épopée, quand Priam vient réclamer le corps de son fils et qu’Achille, selon Jean-Pierre Vernant, comprend les limites du monde héroïque dans lequel il se meut.

Postérité

Réception de l’Iliade dans l’Antiquité

Avec l’Odyssée, l’Iliade est le texte majeur de la littérature grecque. Dans l’Antiquité, il était considéré comme la base indispensable de la bonne éducation, principalement celle des jeunes gens de bonne famille, ce qui faisait d’Homère, selon le mot de Socrate (qui déplorait son influence dans La République de Platon), l’« éducateur de la Grèce »¹⁰^,¹¹. Les enfants devaient par exemple faire des dictées tirées de ses épopées, ou en apprendre par cœur des passages, ou encore répondre à des questions à leur sujet (les restes d’un questionnaire de ce genre ont été retrouvés sur un fragment de papyrus égyptien d’époque ptolémaïque)¹². De nombreux poètes et artistes prennent l’Iliadepour modèle ou s’en inspirent. Dès l’époque archaïque, la Batrachomyomachia, Combat des grenouilles et des rats, que les Anciens attribuaient aussi à Homère, compose une parodie héroïcomique des combats épiques comme ceux de l’Iliade. Au v^e siècle, un dramaturge reprend dans la tragédie Rhésos l’histoire de Dolon, rapportée au chant X de l’Iliade.

À l’époque romaine, le poète latin Virgile prend Homère pour modèle dans la composition de son épopée, l’Énéide, qui relate le mythe des origines troyennes de Rome et glorifie indirectement Auguste. L’histoire prend la suite d’Homère sur plusieurs plans : sur le plan narratif, puisque le principal héros, Énée, est un prince troyen qui apparaît dans l’Iliade ; et sur le plan thématique, puisque la première moitié de l’Énéide relate un voyage en mer dans le style de l’Odyssée, tandis que la seconde moitié décrit les batailles menées par Énée pour s’établir dans le Latium, dans le style de l’Iliade¹³.

Postérité de l’Iliade après l’Antiquité

L’Iliade, comme l’Odyssée, acquiert le statut de classique dès l’Antiquité gréco-romaine et exerce une influence durable sur la littérature et les arts en général. L’œuvre est traduite du grec en vers latins en deux temps, d’abord par Livius Andronicus qui traduit l’Odysséedurant le iii^e siècle av. J.-C.(Odussia) puis par Cnaeus Matius et Publius Baebius Italicus qui traduisent l’Iliade vers le début du i^er siècle av. J.-C. (Ilias Latina). L’Iliade et son auteur étaient étudiés dans les écoles. Aujourd’hui encore, elle inspire de nombreux artistes.

Littérature

Au Moyen Âge, la guerre de Troieest connue par le biais de l’Iliade, notamment grâce aux traductions latines de l’original grec. Mais l’Iliadene raconte que quelques jours de la dixième année de la guerre. Le reste des événements avait été relaté à l’origine par les épopées du cycle troyen, mais celles-ci se sont perdues pendant l’Antiquité. En revanche, d’autres récits composés plus tard dans l’Antiquité sont encore connus au Moyen Âge (et sont parvenus jusqu’à nous), comme l’Histoire de la destruction de Troie attribuée à Darès le Phrygien et l’Éphéméride de la guerre de Troie attribuée à Dictys de Crète¹⁴. Vers 1165, Benoît de Sainte-Maure compose Le Roman de Troie qui relate l’ensemble des événements de la guerre de Troie(et ne se limite donc pas aux événements relatés par l’Iliade)¹⁴. En 1450-1452, Jacques Milletcompose une pièce intitulée Histoire de la destruction de Troie la grande, composée de 30 000 vers, qui connaît un grand succès jusqu’au xvi^e siècle¹⁵.

L’Iliade continue à fournir de nombreux sujets aux poètes et aux dramaturges à la Renaissance. Certaines tragédies développent des sujets liés à la guerre de Troiemais qui décrivent les suites de la guerre, dans la lignée des tragiques antiques : c’est le cas par exemple de La Troade de Robert Garnier(1579). Mais d’autres s’inspirent directement de l’Iliade, comme Hector d’Antoine de Montchrestien(1604)¹⁶.

En 1716, Marivaux publie un Homère travesti ou l’Iliade en vers burlesques qui est une parodie burlesque des événements de l’Iliade, où les guerriers sont ridicules et les combats bouffons ; Marivaux, ignorant le grec, n’a pas lu Homère dans le texte, mais a travaillé à partir d’une traduction française en douze chants par Houdar de La Motte¹⁷.

En 1990, Derek Walcott publie Omeros, une réécriture de l’Iliadequi se déroule aux Caraïbes. En 2006, Alessandro Baricco en propose une réécriture intitulée Homère, Iliade : en supprimant les apparitions divines ainsi que les répétitions, en changeant de narrateur à chaque chapitre et en utilisant l’italien moderne, l’auteur veut débarrasser le récit de «tous les archaïsmes qui l’éloignent du cœur de son sujet»¹⁸.

L’Iliade inspire aussi les auteurs des littératures de l’imaginaire. Dans Ilium (2003) et Olympos (2006), l’auteur américain Dan Simmonsréalise une libre transposition de l’épopée homérique dans un univers de science-fiction qui se réfère aussi à d’autres classiques de la littérature.

Cinéma

Dès les débuts du cinéma, l’Iliadefait l’objet de nombreuses adaptations en péplums. En 2004, Troie, réalisé par Wolfgang Petersen, relate l’ensemble de la guerre de Troie en accordant une place importante aux événements relatés par l’épopée homérique, mais en s’écartant parfois beaucoup du mythe antique.

La tradition manuscrite de l’Iliade

Folio 24r du Venetus A. Comme l’indique le titre en rouge au milieu de la page, il s’agit de la fin du premier chant et du début du second (ΙΛΙΑΔΟΣ B). Le texte du poème est accompagné d’au moins cinq types de scholies.
1- En tête de la page, en rouge, un bref résumé du Chant II qui dit : Bῆτα δ’ ὄνειρον ἔχει· ἀγορήν· καὶ νῆας ἀριθμεῖ· (Et Bêta comprend un rêve, une assemblée, et énumère les navires).
2- Une exégèse dense encadre les hexamètres homériens.
3- Le scribe utilise les marges et les interlignes pour écrire d’autres notes.
4- D’autres encore sont inscrites à droite dans le dessin d’une colonne.
5- Sous la ligne de points et les motifs végétaux qui concluent le Chant I, il inscrit les sources bibliographiques de sa glose.
Comme au début de chaque chant, l’initiale (Alpha dans ce cas) est une lettrine végétale enluminée.

Le codex Venetus A

Comme en témoignent les nombreux papyrus dont on dispose et qui reproduisent des fragments de texte, il existe plusieurs versions du poème iliadique. Celle qui fait aujourd’hui référence s’appelle la « vulgate alexandrine » parce qu’elle est établie et commentée en Égypte aux iii^e et ii^e siècles av. J.-C., sans doute à partir d’un corpus grec datant du vi^e siècle av. J.-C.¹⁹.

Le plus vieux manuscrit complet que l’on en connaisse est de ce fait l’un des plus célèbres du monde. On l’appelle « Venetus A », ou « Codex Marcianus Graecus Z. 454 (=822) »²⁰. « Codex » signifie que l’ouvrage est un manuscrit relié sous forme de livre, et « Marcianus Graecus », qu’il appartient au fonds grec de la bibliothèque Marciana de Venise. La lettre Z indique le nom (Zanetti) de la personne qui l’a enregistré sous le numéro 454 de l’inventaire. La cote supplémentaire, « 822 », a été rajoutée au début du xx^e siècle pour indiquer l’emplacement du manuscrit dans la bibliothèque.

Il existe d’autres manuscrits, un peu plus récents, que l’on désigne soit par leur cote, soit par les classements établis par les chercheurs qui les ont étudiés : l’Escorialensis Ω.I.12, du monastère de l’Escurial en Espagne, est par exemple également appelé E4 par Allen²¹ et F par Martin L. West²².

Le Venetus A (abrégé « VA » ou « VenA ») est une copie byzantinedu x^e siècle. Il parvient en Italie, entre les mains du cardinal humaniste grec Bessarion, au milieu du xv^e siècle, alors que la menace ottomane se précise sur Constantinople. Bessarion le lègue avec toute sa bibliothèque à la République de Venise. Sur le catalogue du legs qui est transféré à la Sérénissime en 1472, il est désigné par ces quelques mots : Homeri Ilias, in pergameno, pulchra(l’Iliade d’Homère, sur parchemin, magnifique). Le codex est plus ou moins oublié pendant des siècles avant d’être à nouveau repéré et publié à la fin du xviii^e siècle par Jean-Baptiste-Gaspard d’Ansse de Villoison. Enfin, le manuscrit gagne Paris dans les malles de Bonaparte mais est finalement restitué en 1816.

Le Venetus A compte 654 pages écrites par le même scribe sur des parchemins en peau de chèvre. Comme la plupart des manuscrits byzantins de la vulgate alexandrine, il accompagne le texte de nombreux commentaires linguistiques, critiques ou didactiques qu’on appelle scholies. Les scholies expliquent par exemple l’emploi de termes déjà devenus rares ou obsolètes à l’époque hellénistique. Elles nous renseignent aussi sur l’histoire du texte et de ses différentes versions. Le nombre et la qualité des scholies de VA témoignent d’une érudition et d’une documentation impressionnantes et confèrent à l’ouvrage un caractère exceptionnel²³.

La scribe introduit chaque chant par un court résumé en forme d’hexamètre dactylique et indique pour chacun les sources des scholies qu’il a sélectionnées. Il prend également soin de changer de calame et d’adopter une graphie différente pour le texte principal et chaque type de scholies. De forme végétale, la lettrine initiale des chants est enluminée de rouge carmin, d’or et de bleu cobalt. Le texte est écrit en encre brun-foncé à brun-rouille. Quelques indications sont données en rouge. Quelques illustrations sont rajoutées au xii^e siècle.

Le codex a subi plusieurs opérations de reliure et de restauration : la première connue est faite par Bessarion lui-même qui remplace 19 pages manquantes en imitant remarquablement de sa main la graphie originelle. Enfin, il fait l’objet d’une reproduction photographique en 1901.

La comparaison entre le texte de d’Ansse de Villoison, ces photographies et l’état actuel du document est assez préoccupante : l’encre s’efface et certains passages ont déjà disparu. À cet égard, la numérisation en haute résolution des papyrus et des manuscrits, les prises de vues sous ultra-violet rendant à nouveau lisibles les textes effacés par le temps, et leur publication sous licence Creative Commons ouvrent des perspectives diacritiques inédites et constituent l’un des enjeux majeurs des études homériques contemporaines. À titre d’exemples, VA, VB et U4 [Codex Marcianus Graecus Z. 453 (= 821) et Marcianus Graecus Z. 458 (= 841)] sont intégralement disponibles sur le site du Center for Hellenic Studies de l’université Harvard. L’université du Kentucky a procédé à la numérisation de l’Escorialensis Υ.I.1 et de l’Escorialensis Ω.I.12. Les images sont disponibles sur le site des études classiques de l’université de Houston²⁴. Mais l’âge et la fragilité des manuscrits rendent ces campagnes d’acquisition de données particulièrement délicates. Elles nécessitent la mise en place de partenariats scientifiques et techniques internationaux²⁵.

Traductions en français

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Page de garde de l’édition Riheldatant de 1572.

Hugues Salel (livres 1 à 12), 1545-1554, disponible sur wikisource ; Amadys Jamyn (livres 13 à 24), 1580.
Anne Dacier, 1699
Paul Jérémie Bitaubé, chez Prault, 1780
Leconte de Lisle, Alphonse Lemerre, 1866, disponible sur wikisource
Paul Mazon, Les Belles Lettres, 1938–1939
Robert Flacelière, Éditions Gallimard, collection « Bibliothèque de la Pléiade » 1956, rééd. 1993,(ISBN 2-07-010261-0)
Mario Meunier, Éditions Albin Michel, 1956
Eugène Lasserre, Garnier Frères, 1960
Louis Bardollet, collection « Bouquins », Éditions Robert Laffont, 1995
Frédéric Mugler, Éditions de la Différence, 1995
Philippe Brunet, Éditions du Seuil, 2010
Jean-Louis Backès, collection « Folio classique », Éditions Gallimard, 2013

Références

↑ Les extraits de L’Iliade sont issus de la leçon de Paul Mazon (Belles Lettres).
↑ Les extraits traduits viennent de la traduction de Frédéric Mugler, Actes Sud, 1995.
↑ Traduction R. Flacelière, coll. La Pléiade 1955, p. 93.
↑ Les éléments de structure de l’Iliade sont donnés par Suzanne Saïd, Monique Trédé-Boulmer et Alain Le Boulluec (1997), p. 35-37.
↑ Cratyle, 428 c.
↑ vers 317-327
↑ Chant IX, 413
↑ 9 D, 27 sq., trad. C. Patro
↑ Entre mythe et politique, Seuil, 1984^{[réf. non conforme]}
↑ τὴν Ἑλλάδα πεπαίδευκεν / tḕn Helláda pepaídeuken, République, X, 606 e.
↑ Suzanne Saïd, Monique Trédé-Boulmer, Alain Le Boulluec (1997), p. 48-49.
↑ Farnoux, Homère, le Prince des poètes, Gallimard, 2010, p. 80-81.
↑ Hubert Zehnacker et Jean-Claude Fredouille, Littérature latine, PUF, 1993, p. 147.
↑ ^a et b Eissen (1993), p. 283.
↑ Eissen (1993), p. 284.
↑ Eissen (1993), p. 286-288.
↑ Eissen (1993), p. 288-289.
↑ «tutti gli spigoli arcaici che allontanano dal cuore delle cose» (it) Lauretta Colonnelli, « Baricco narra la sua Iliade » [archive], Corriere della Sera, p. 55
↑ Danièle Thibault, « La transmission : de la parole aux écrits » [archive], page sur le site de l’exposition Homère : sur les traces d’Ulysse, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, organisée du 21 novembre 2006 au 27 mai 2007. Page consultée le 12 mai 2012.
↑ La plupart des informations suivantes proviennent de Casey Dué (éd.), Recapturing a Homeric Legacy, Center for Hellenic Studies, Trustees for Harvard University (revue Hellenic Studies n°35), 2009. [lire en ligne [archive]]
↑ Allen, T. W. Homeri Ilias. Vol. I–III. Oxford, 1931.
↑ Martin L. West, éd. Homeri Ilias. Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1998–2000.
↑ VILLOISON, Jean Baptiste Gaspard d’Ansse de, Lettre à M. Formey du septembre 1779 sur les découvertes littéraires qu’il a faites à Venise. Nouveaux Mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres [archive], 1779.
↑ Images à télécharger à partir du site de l’université de Houston. [archive]
↑ Amy Hackney Blackwell a relaté l’aventure de la numérisation du Venetus A dans le magazine Wired : « Robot Scans Ancient Manuscript in 3-D », article d’Amy Hackney Blackwell dans Wired, 6 mai 2007. [lire en ligne [archive]].

Sur les autres projets Wikimedia :

Iliade, sur Wikimedia Commons
Iliade, sur le Wiktionnaire
Iliade, sur Wikisource
Iliade, sur Wikiquote

Consultez la liste des éditions de cette œuvre :
Iliade (Homère).

(fr) Luc Brisson (dir.) et Georges Leroux, La République : Platon, Œuvres complètes, Éditions Gallimard, 2008 (1^re éd. 2006) (ISBN 978-2-0812-1810-9)
(fr) Homère (trad. Robert Flacelière), Iliade, Éditions Gallimard, coll. « Bibliothèque de la Pléiade », 1993 (1^re éd. 1955) (ISBN 2-07-010261-0).
(fr) Luc Brisson (dir.) (trad. Catherine Dalimier), Cratyle : Platon, Œuvres complètes, Éditions Flammarion, 2008 (1^re éd. 2006), 2204 p.(ISBN 978-2081218109)

Ouvrages généraux

Suzanne Saïd, Monique Trédé et Alain Le Boulluec, Histoire de la littérature grecque, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, coll. « Premier Cycle », 1997 (ISBN 2130482333 et978-2130482338)
Ariane Eissen, Les Mythes grecs, Belin, 1993.
Alexandre Farnoux, Homère, le prince des poètes, Paris, Gallimard, 2010.

Études

Guy Samama, collectif, Analyses et réflexions sur L’Iliade (chants XI à XXIV), Ellipses, 2000,(ISBN 2-7298-0241-X)
André Sauge :
- L’Iliade poème athénien de l’époque de Solon, Lang, 2000 (ISBN 3-906758-43-5),
- L’Iliade. Langue récit, écriture. L’Épopée homérique et l’invention de la citoyenneté, Lang, 2007(ISBN 978-3-03911-138-1).
Jean-Louis Backès, Iliade d’Homère, Gallimard, coll. Foliothéque, 2006,(ISBN 2-07-030511-2).
Rachel Bespaloff, De l’Iliade, Alia, 2004 (1^re éd. 1943)(ISBN 978-2-84485-161-1).
David Bouvier, Le Sceptre et la lyre. L’« Iliade » ou les héros de la mémoire, Grenoble, Jerôme Millon, 2002
Paul Demont, L’Iliade et l’Odyssée, Chêne, 2005
Sylvie Humbert-Mougin, L’Iliade, Nathan, 1997
(en) Geoffrey S. Kirk (dir.), The Iliad: A Commentary, Cambridge University Press, 6 vol., 1985-1993.
Bernard Knox, L’« Iliade » d’Homère, Arléa, 2005
Hubert Laizé, Leçon littéraire sur l’Iliade, Paris, PUF, 2000.
Henri-Irénée Marrou, Histoire de l’éducation dans l’Antiquité, Paris, Le Seuil, 1948.
Paul Mazon, Introduction à l’« Iliade », Les Belles-Lettres, 1948
Hélène Monsacré, Les Larmes d’Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d’Homère, Albin Michel, 1984.
James Redfield, La Tragédie d’Hector. Nature et culture dans l’Iliade, Flammarion, 1984.
Jacqueline de Romilly :
- Hector, De Fallois, 1997.
- Perspectives actuelles sur l’épopée homérique, Paris, 1984
Jean Theveny, « Le temps des Achéens », histoire de la civilisation achéenne selon l’Iliade et l’Odyssée, Elzévir 2009.
Pierre Vidal-Naquet, « L’Iliadesans travesti », introduction à l’Iliade, trad. Paul Mazon, Gallimard, coll. « Folio », 1975.
Simone Weil, « L’Iliade ou le poème de la force », Lire en ligne [archive], dans La Source grecque, Gallimard, 1953.

Catalogue des vaisseaux et Catalogue des Troyens(passages du chant II de l’Iliade)
Homère
L’Odyssée
Cycle troyen

Trojan War Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE
Achilles tending the wounded Patroclus (Attic red-figure kylix, c. 500 BC)
The war
Setting: Troy (modern Hisarlik, Turkey) Period: Bronze Age Traditional dating: c. 1194–1184 BC Modern dating: c. 1260–1180 BC Outcome: Greek victory, destruction of Troy See also: Historicity of the Iliad
Literary sources
Iliad Epic Cycle Aeneid, Book 2 Iphigenia in Aulis Philoctetes Ajax The Trojan Women Posthomerica See also: Trojan War in popular culture
Episodes
Judgement of Paris Seduction of Helen Trojan Horse Sack of Troy The Returns Wanderings of Odysseus Aeneas and the Founding of Rome
Greeks and allies
Agamemnon Achilles Helen Menelaus Nestor Odysseus Ajax Diomedes Patroclus Thersites Achaeans Myrmidons See also: Catalogue of Ships
Trojans and allies
Priam Hecuba Hector Paris Cassandra Andromache Aeneas Memnon Troilus Penthesilea and the Amazons Sarpedon See also: Trojan Battle Order
Participant gods
Caused the war: Eris Zeus On the Greek side: Athena Hephaestus Hera Hermes Thetis On the Trojan side: Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Leto Scamander Poseidon
Related topics
Homeric Question Archaeology of Troy Mycenae Mycenaean warfare
v t e

The Iliad (/ˈɪliəd/;^[1]Ancient Greek: Ἰλιάς Iliás, pronounced [iː.li.ás] in Classical Attic; sometimes referred to as the Song of Ilion or Song of Ilium) is an ancient Greek epic poemin dactylic hexameter, traditionally attributed to Homer. Set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy(Ilium) by a coalition of Greek states, it tells of the battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles.

Although the story covers only a few weeks in the final year of the war, the Iliad mentions or alludes to many of the Greek legends about the siege; the earlier events, such as the gathering of warriors for the siege, the cause of the war, and related concerns tend to appear near the beginning. Then the epic narrative takes up events prophesied for the future, such as Achilles’ imminent death and the fall of Troy, although the narrative ends before these events take place. However, as these events are prefigured and alluded to more and more vividly, when it reaches an end the poem has told a more or less complete tale of the Trojan War.

The Iliad is paired with something of a sequel, the Odyssey, also attributed to Homer. Along with the Odyssey, the Iliad is among the oldest extant works of Western literature, and its written version is usually dated to around the 8th century BC.^[2] In the modern vulgate (the standard accepted version), the Iliad contains 15,693 lines; it is written in Homeric Greek, a literary amalgam of Ionic Greek and other dialects. According to Michael N. Nagler, the Iliad is a more complicated epic poem than the Odyssey.^[3]

Synopsis

The first verses of the Iliad

Note: Book numbers are in parentheses and come before the synopsis of the book.

(1) After an invocation to the Muses, the story launches in medias res towards the end of the Trojan War between the Trojans and the besieging Greeks. Chryses, a Trojan priest of Apollo, offers the Greeks wealth for the return of his daughter Chryseis, held captive of Agamemnon, the Greek leader. Although most of the Greek army is in favour of the offer, Agamemnon refuses. Chryses prays for Apollo’s help, and Apollo causes a plague to afflict the Greek army.

After nine days of plague, Achilles, the leader of the Myrmidoncontingent, calls an assembly to deal with the problem. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return Chryseis to her father, but decides to take Achilles’ captive, Briseis, as compensation. Angered, Achilles declares that he and his men will no longer fight for Agamemnon and will go home. Odysseus takes a ship and returns Chryseis to her father, whereupon Apollo ends the plague.

In the meantime, Agamemnon’s messengers take Briseis away. Achilles becomes very upset, sits by the seashore, and prays to his mother, Thetis.^[4] Achilles asks his mother to ask Zeus to bring the Greeks to the breaking point by the Trojans, so Agamemnon will realize how much the Greeks need Achilles. Thetis does so, and Zeus agrees.

(2) Zeus sends a dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack Troy. Agamemnon heeds the dream but decides to first test the Greek army’s morale, by telling them to go home. The plan backfires, and only the intervention of Odysseus, inspired by Athena, stops a rout.

Odysseus confronts and beats Thersites, a common soldier who voices discontent about fighting Agamemnon’s war. After a meal, the Greeks deploy in companies upon the Trojan plain. The poet takes the opportunity to describe the provenance of each Greek contingent.

When news of the Greek deployment reaches King Priam, the Trojans too sortie upon the plain. In a list similar to that for the Greeks, the poet describes the Trojans and their allies.

(3) The armies approach each other, but before they meet, Parisoffers to end the war by fighting a duel with Menelaus, urged by his brother and head of the Trojan army, Hector. While Helen tells Priam about the Greek commanders from the walls of Troy, both sides swear a truce and promise to abide by the outcome of the duel. Paris is beaten, but Aphrodite rescues him and leads him to bed with Helen before Menelaus can kill him.

(4) Pressured by Hera‘s hatred of Troy, Zeus arranges for the Trojan Pandaros to break the truce by wounding Menelaus with an arrow. Agamemnon rouses the Greeks, and battle is joined.

(5) In the fighting, Diomedes kills many Trojans, including Pandaros, and defeats Aeneas, whom Aphrodite rescues, but Diomedes attacks and wounds the goddess. Apollo faces Diomedes and warns him against warring with gods. Many heroes and commanders join in, including Hector, and the gods supporting each side try to influence the battle. Emboldened by Athena, Diomedes wounds Ares and puts him out of action.

(6) Hector rallies the Trojans and prevents a rout; the Greek Diomedes and the Trojan Glaukos find common ground and exchange unequal gifts. Hector enters the city, urges prayers and sacrifices, incites Paris to battle, bids his wife Andromache and son Astyanaxfarewell on the city walls, and rejoins the battle.

(7) Hector duels with Ajax, but nightfall interrupts the fight, and both sides retire. The Greeks agree to burn their dead, and build a wall to protect their ships and camp, while the Trojans quarrel about returning Helen. Paris offers to return the treasure he took and give further wealth as compensation, but not Helen, and the offer is refused. A day’s truce is agreed for burning the dead, during which the Greeks also build their wall and a trench.

(8) The next morning, Zeus prohibits the gods from interfering, and fighting begins anew. The Trojans prevail and force the Greeks back to their wall, while Hera and Athena are forbidden to help. Night falls before the Trojans can assail the Greek wall. They camp in the field to attack at first light, and their watchfires light the plain like stars.

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Iliad, Book VIII, lines 245–53, Greek manuscript, late 5th, early 6th centuries AD.

(9) Meanwhile, the Greeks are desperate. Agamemnon admits his error, and sends an embassy composed of Odysseus, Ajax, Phoenix, and two heralds to offer Briseis and extensive gifts to Achilles, who has been camped next to his ships throughout, if only he will return to the fighting. Achilles and his companion Patroclus receive the embassy well, but Achilles angrily refuses Agamemnon’s offer and declares that he would only return to battle if the Trojans reached his ships and threatened them with fire. The embassy returns empty-handed.

(10) Later that night, Odysseus and Diomedes venture out to the Trojan lines, kill the Trojan Dolon, and wreak havoc in the camps of some Thracian allies of Troy’s.

(11) In the morning, the fighting is fierce, and Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus are all wounded. Achilles sends Patroclus from his camp to inquire about the Greek casualties, and while there Patroclus is moved to pity by a speech of Nestor‘s.

(12) The Trojans attack the Greek wall on foot. Hector, ignoring an omen, leads the terrible fighting. The Greeks are overwhelmed and routed, the wall’s gate is broken, and Hector charges in.

(13) Many fall on both sides. The Trojan seer Polydamas urges Hector to fall back and warns him about Achilles, but is ignored.

(14) Hera seduces Zeus and lures him to sleep, allowing Poseidonto help the Greeks, and the Trojans are driven back onto the plain.

(15) Zeus awakes and is enraged by Poseidon’s intervention. Against the mounting discontent of the Greek-supporting gods, Zeus sends Apollo to aid the Trojans, who once again breach the wall, and the battle reaches the ships.

(16) Patroclus cannot stand to watch any longer and begs Achilles to be allowed to defend the ships. Achilles relents and lends Patroclus his armor, but sends him off with a stern admonition not to pursue the Trojans, lest he take Achilles’ glory. Patroclus leads the Myrmidonsinto battle and arrives as the Trojans set fire to the first ships. The Trojans are routed by the sudden onslaught, and Patroclus begins his assault by killing Zeus’s son Sarpedon, a leading ally of the Trojans. Patroclus, ignoring Achilles’ command, pursues and reaches the gates of Troy, where Apollo himself stops him. Patroclus is set upon by Apollo and Euphorbos, and is finally killed by Hector.

(17) Hector takes Achilles’ armor from the fallen Patroclus, but fighting develops around Patroclus’ body.

(18) Achilles is mad with grief when he hears of Patroclus’ death and vows to take vengeance on Hector; his mother Thetis grieves, too, knowing that Achilles is fated to die young if he kills Hector. Achilles is urged to help retrieve Patroclus’ body but has no armour. Bathed in a brilliant radiance by Athena, Achilles stands next to the Greek wall and roars in rage. The Trojans are dismayed by his appearance, and the Greeks manage to bear Patroclus’ body away. Polydamas urges Hector again to withdraw into the city; again Hector refuses, and the Trojans camp on the plain at nightfall. Patroclus is mourned. Meanwhile, at Thetis’ request, Hephaestus fashions a new set of armor for Achilles, including a magnificently wrought shield.

(19) In the morning, Agamemnon gives Achilles all the promised gifts, including Briseis, but Achilles is indifferent to them. Achilles fasts while the Greeks take their meal, straps on his new armor, and heaves^{[clarification needed]} his great spear. His horse Xanthosprophesies to Achilles his death. Achilles drives his chariot into battle.

(20) Zeus lifts the ban on the gods’ interference, and the gods freely help both sides. Achilles, burning with rage and grief, slays many.

(21) Driving the Trojans before him, Achilles cuts off half their number in the river Skamandros and proceeds to slaughter them, filling the river with the dead. The river, angry at the killing, confronts Achilles but is beaten back by Hephaestus’ firestorm. The gods fight among themselves. The great gates of the city are opened to receive the fleeing Trojans, and Apollo leads Achilles away from the city by pretending to be a Trojan.

(22) When Apollo reveals himself to Achilles, the Trojans have retreated into the city, all except for Hector, who, having twice ignored the counsels of Polydamas, feels the shame of the rout and resolves to face Achilles, despite the pleas of his parents, Priam and Hecuba. When Achilles approaches, Hector’s will fails him, and he is chased around the city by Achilles. Finally, Athena tricks him into stopping, and he turns to face his opponent. After a brief duel, Achilles stabs Hector through the neck. Before dying, Hector reminds Achilles that he, too, is fated to die in the war. Achilles takes Hector’s body and dishonours it by dragging it behind his chariot.

(23) The ghost of Patroclus comes to Achilles in a dream, urging him to carry out his burial rites and to arrange for their bones to be entombed together. The Greeks hold a day of funeral games, and Achilles gives out the prizes.

(24) Dismayed by Achilles’ continued abuse of Hector’s body, Zeus decides that it must be returned to Priam. Led by Hermes, Priam takes a wagon out of Troy, across the plains, and into the Greek camp unnoticed. He clasps Achilles by the knees and begs for his son’s body. Achilles is moved to tears, and the two lament their losses in the war. After a meal, Priam carries Hector’s body back into Troy. Hector is buried, and the city mourns.

Major characters

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon from the battlefield of Troy; detail from an Attic white-ground lekythos, c. 440 BC.

The many characters of the Iliad are catalogued; the latter half of Book II, the « Catalogue of Ships« , lists commanders and cohorts; battle scenes feature quickly slain minor characters.

Achaeans

The Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί) – also called Hellenes (Ἑλλοί), Danaans(Δαναοί), Argives (Ἀργεĩοι), or Greeks.
- Agamemnon – King of Mycenae, leader of the Greeks.
- Achilles – son of Peleus and divine Thetis, foremost warrior, leader of the Myrmidons and King of Phthia.^[5]
- Odysseus – King of Ithaca, Greek commander.
- Ajax the Greater – son of Telamon and king of Salamis.
- Menelaus – King of Sparta, husband of Helen and brother of Agamemnon.
- Diomedes – son of Tydeus, King of Argos.
- Ajax the Lesser – son of Oileus, commander of the Locrians.
- Patroclus – Achilles’ closest companion.
- Nestor – King of Pylos, and trusted advisor to Agamemnon.

Achilles and Patroclus

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Achilles Lamenting the Death of Patroclus (1855) by the Russian realist Nikolai Ge

Much debate has surrounded the nature of the relationship of Achilles and Patroclus, as to whether it can be described as a homoerotic one or not. Classical and Hellenistic Athenian scholars perceived it as pederastic,^[6] while others perceived it as a platonic warrior-bond.^[7]

Trojans

The Trojan men
- Hector – son of King Priam, and the foremost Trojan warrior.
- Aeneas – son of Anchises and Aphrodite.
- Deiphobus – brother of Hector and Paris.
- Paris – son of King Priam, and Helen’s lover/abductor.
- Priam – the aged King of Troy.
- Polydamas – a prudent commander whose advice is ignored; he is Hector’s foil.
- Agenor – son of Antenor, a Trojan warrior who attempts to fight Achilles (Book XXI).
- Sarpedon, son of Zeus – killed by Patroclus. Was friend of Glaucus and co-leader of the Lycians (fought for the Trojans).
- Glaucus, son of Hippolochus – friend of Sarpedon and co-leader of the Lycians (fought for the Trojans).
- Euphorbus – first Trojan warrior to wound Patroclus.
- Dolon – a spy upon the Greek camp (Book X).
- Antenor – King Priam’s advisor, who argues for returning Helen to end the war.
- Polydorus – son of Priam and Laothoe.
- Pandarus – famous archer and son of Lycaon.
The Trojan women
- Hecuba (Ἑκάβη, Hekábe) – Priam’s wife, mother of Hector, Cassandra, Paris, and others.
- Helen (Ἑλένη) – daughter of Zeus; Menelaus’s wife; espoused first to Paris, then to Deiphobus; her abduction by Paris precipitated the war.
- Andromache – Hector’s wife, mother of Astyanax.
- Cassandra – Priam’s daughter.
- Briseis – a Trojan woman captured by Achilles from a previous siege, over whom Achilles’s quarrel with Agamemnon began.

Gods

In the literary Trojan War of the Iliad, the Olympian gods, goddesses, and minor deities fight among themselves and participate in human warfare, often by interfering with humans to counter other gods. Unlike their portrayals in Greek religion, Homer’s portrayal of gods suited his narrative purpose. The gods in traditional thought of fourth-century Athenians were not spoken of in terms familiar to us from Homer.^[8]The Classical-era historian Herodotus says that Homer and Hesiod, his contemporary, were the first writers to name and describe the gods’ appearance and character.^[9]

In Greek Gods, Human Lives: What We Can Learn From Myths, Mary Lefkowitz discusses the relevance of divine action in the Iliad, attempting to answer the question of whether or not divine intervention is a discrete occurrence (for its own sake), or if such godly behaviors are mere human character metaphors. The intellectual interest of Classic-era authors, such as Thucydides and Plato, was limited to their utility as « a way of talking about human life rather than a description or a truth », because, if the gods remain religious figures, rather than human metaphors, their « existence »—without the foundation of either dogma or a bible of faiths—then allowed Greek culture the intellectual breadth and freedom to conjure gods fitting any religious function they required as a people.^[10]^[11] The religion had no founder and was not the creation of an inspired teacher which were popular origins of existing religions in the world.^[12] The individuals were free to believe what they wanted, as the Greek religion was created out of a consensus of the people. These beliefs coincide to the thoughts about the gods in polytheistic Greek religion. In the article « Greek Religion » A.W.H. Adkins, agrees with this by saying, “The early Greeks personalized every aspect of their world, natural and cultural, and their experiences in it. The earth, the sea, the mountains, the rivers, custom-law (themis), and one’s share in society and its goods were all seen in personal as well as naturalistic terms.”^[13] As a result of this thinking, each god or goddess in Polytheistic Greek religion is attributed to an aspect of the human world. For example, Poseidon is the god of the sea, Aphrodite is the goddess of beauty, Ares is the god of war, and so on and so forth for many other gods. This is how Greek culture was defined as many Athenians felt the presence of their gods through divine intervention in significant events in their lives. Oftentimes they found these events to be mysterious and inexplicable.^[8]

In The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, psychologist Julian Jaynes uses the Iliad as a major piece of evidence for his theory of Bicameralism, which posits that until about the time described in the Iliad, humans had a far different mentality from present day humans. He says that humans during that time were lacking what we today call consciousness. He suggests that humans heard and obeyed commands from what they identified as gods, until the change in human mentality that incorporated the motivating force into the conscious self. He points out that almost every action in the Iliad is directed, caused, or influenced by a god, and that earlier translations show an astonishing lack of words suggesting thought, planning, or introspection. Those that do appear, he argues, are misinterpretations made by translators imposing a modern mentality on the characters.^[14]

Divine intervention

Some scholars believe that the gods may have intervened in the mortal world because of quarrels they may have had among each other. Homer interprets the world at this time by using the passion and emotion of the gods to be determining factors of what happens on the human level.^[15] An example of one of these relationships in the Iliadoccurs between Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite. In the final book of the poem Homer writes, “He offended Athena and Hera—both goddesses.”^[16] Athena and Hera are envious of Aphrodite because of a beauty pageant on Mount Olympus in which Paris chose Aphrodite to be the most beautiful goddess over both Hera and Athena. Wolfgang Kullmann further goes on to say, “Hera’s and Athena’s disappointment over the victory of Aphrodite in the Judgement of Paris determines the whole conduct of both goddesses in The Iliad and is the cause of their hatred for Paris, the Judge, and his town Troy.”^[15]Hera and Athena then continue to support the Achaean forces throughout the poem because Paris is part of the Trojans, while Aphrodite aids Paris and the Trojans. The emotions between the goddesses often translate to actions they take in the mortal world. For example, in Book 3 of The Iliad, Paris challenges any of the Achaeans to a single combat and Menelaus steps forward. Menelaus was dominating the battle and was on the verge of killing Paris. “Now he’d have hauled him off and won undying glory but Aphrodite, Zeus’s daughter was quick to the mark, snapped the rawhide strap.”^[16]Aphrodite intervened out of her own self-interest to save Paris from the wrath of Menelaus because Paris had helped her to win the beauty pageant. The partisanship of Aphrodite towards Paris induces constant intervention by all of the gods, especially to give motivational speeches to their respective proteges, while often appearing in the shape of a human being they are familiar with.^[15] This connection of emotions to actions is just one example out of many that occur throughout the poem.^{[citation needed]}

The major deities:
- Zeus (Neutral)
- Hera (Achaeans)
- Artemis (Trojans)
- Apollo (Trojans)
- Hades (Neutral)
- Aphrodite (Trojans)
- Ares (Achaeans, then Trojans)
- Athena (Achaeans)
- Hermes (Neutral/Achaeans)
- Poseidon (Achaeans)
- Hephaestus (Achaeans)
The minor deities:
- Eris (Trojans)
- Iris (Neutral)
- Thetis (Achaeans)
- Leto (Trojans)
- Proteus (Achaeans)
- Scamander (Trojans)
- Phobos (Trojans)
- Deimos (Trojans)
- Hypnos (Achaeans)

Fate

Fate (κήρ, kēr, « fated death ») propels most of the events of the Iliad. Once set, gods and men abide it, neither truly able nor willing to contest it. How fate is set is unknown, but it is told by the Fates and by Zeus through sending omens to seers such as Calchas. Men and their gods continually speak of heroic acceptance and cowardly avoidance of one’s slated fate.^[17] Fate does not determine every action, incident, and occurrence, but it does determine the outcome of life—before killing him, Hector calls Patroclus a fool for cowardly avoidance of his fate, by attempting his defeat;^{[citation needed]} Patroclus retorts: ^[18]

No, deadly destiny, with the son of Leto, has killed me,
and of men it was Euphorbos; you are only my third slayer.
And put away in your heart this other thing that I tell you.
You yourself are not one who shall live long, but now already
death and powerful destiny are standing beside you,
to go down under the hands of Aiakos’ great son, Achilleus.^[19]

Here, Patroclus alludes to fated death by Hector’s hand, and Hector’s fated death by Achilles’s hand. Each accepts the outcome of his life, yet, no-one knows if the gods can alter fate. The first instance of this doubt occurs in Book XVI. Seeing Patroclus about to kill Sarpedon, his mortal son, Zeus says:

Ah me, that it is destined that the dearest of men, Sarpedon,
must go down under the hands of Menoitios’ son Patroclus.^[20]

About his dilemma, Hera asks Zeus:

Majesty, son of Kronos, what sort of thing have you spoken?
Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since
doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him?
Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.^[21]

In deciding between losing a son or abiding fate, Zeus, King of the Gods, allows it. This motif recurs when he considers sparing Hector, whom he loves and respects. This time, it is Athene who challenges him:

Father of the shining bolt, dark misted, what is this you said?
Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since
doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him?
Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.^[22]

Again, Zeus appears capable of altering fate, but does not, deciding instead to abide set outcomes; similarly, fate spares Aeneas, after Apollo convinces the over-matched Trojan to fight Achilles. Poseidon cautiously speaks:

But come, let us ourselves get him away from death, for fear
the son of Kronos may be angered if now Achilleus
kills this man. It is destined that he shall be the survivor,
that the generation of Dardanos shall not die …^[23]

Divinely aided, Aeneas escapes the wrath of Achilles and survives the Trojan War. Whether or not the gods can alter fate, they do abide it, despite its countering their human allegiances; thus, the mysterious origin of fate is a power beyond the gods. Fate implies the primeval, tripartite division of the world that Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades effected in deposing their father, Cronus, for its dominion. Zeus took the Air and the Sky, Poseidon the Waters, and Hades the Underworld, the land of the dead—yet they share dominion of the Earth. Despite the earthly powers of the Olympic gods, only the Three Fates set the destiny of Man.

Kleos

Kleos (κλέος, « glory, fame ») is the concept of glory earned in heroic battle.^[24] Yet, Achilles must choose only one of the two rewards, either nostos or kleos.^[25] In Book IX (IX.410–16), he poignantly tells Agamemnon’s envoys—Odysseus, Phoenix, Ajax—begging his reinstatement to battle about having to choose between two fates (διχθαδίας κήρας, 9.411).^[26]

The passage reads:

μήτηρ γάρ τέ μέ φησι θεὰ Θέτις ἀργυρόπεζα (410)
διχθαδίας κῆρας φερέμεν θανάτοιο τέλος δέ.
εἰ μέν κ’ αὖθι μένων Τρώων πόλιν ἀμφιμάχωμαι,
ὤλετο μέν μοι νόστος, ἀτὰρ κλέος ἄφθιτον ἔσται
εἰ δέ κεν οἴκαδ’ ἵκωμι φίλην ἐς πατρίδα γαῖαν,
ὤλετό μοι κλέος ἐσθλόν, ἐπὶ δηρὸν δέ μοι αἰὼν (415)
ἔσσεται, οὐδέ κέ μ’ ὦκα τέλος θανάτοιο κιχείη.^[27]

For my mother Thetis the goddess of silver feet tells me
I carry two sorts of destiny toward the day of my death. Either,
if I stay here and fight beside the city of the Trojans,
my return home is gone, but my glory shall be everlasting;
but if I return home to the beloved land of my fathers,
the excellence of my glory is gone, but there will be a long life
left for me, and my end in death will not come to me quickly.^[28]

—Translated by Richmond Lattimore

In forgoing his nostos, he will earn the greater reward of kleos aphthiton (κλέος ἄφθιτον, « fame imperishable »).^[26] In the poem, aphthiton (ἄφθιτον, « imperishable ») occurs five other times,^[29] each occurrence denotes an object: Agamemnon’s sceptre, the wheel of Hebe‘s chariot, the house of Poseidon, the throne of Zeus, the house of Hephaestus. Translator Lattimore renders kleos aphthiton as forever immortal and as forever imperishable—connoting Achilles’s mortality by underscoring his greater reward in returning to battle Troy.

Kleos is often given visible representation by the prizes won in battle. When Agamemnon takes Briseis from Achilles, he takes away a portion of the kleos he had earned.

Achilles’ shield, crafted by Hephaestus and given to him by his mother Thetis, bears an image of stars in the centre. The stars conjure profound images of the place of a single man, no matter how heroic, in the perspective of the entire cosmos.

Nostos

Nostos (νόστος, « homecoming ») occurs seven times in the poem,^[30]making it a minor theme in the Iliad itself. Yet the concept of homecoming is much explored in other Ancient Greek literature, especially in the post-war homeward fortunes experienced by the Atreidae (Agamemnon and Menelaus), and Odysseus (see the Odyssey).

Pride

Pride drives the plot of the Iliad. The Greeks gather on the plain of Troy to wrest Helen from the Trojans. Though the majority of the Trojans would gladly return Helen to the Greeks, they defer to the pride of their prince, Alexandros, also known as Paris. Within this frame, Homer’s work begins. At the start of the Iliad, Agamemnon’s pride sets forth a chain of events that leads him to take from Achilles, Briseis, the girl that he had originally given Achilles in return for his martial prowess. Due to this slight, Achilles refuses to fight and asks his mother, Thetis, to make sure that Zeus causes the Greeks to suffer on the battlefield until Agamemnon comes to realize the harm he has done to Achilles. Achilles’ pride allows him to beg Thetis for the deaths of his Greek friends and countrymen. When in Book 9 his friends urge him to return, offering him loot and his girl, Briseis, he refuses, stuck in his vengeful pride. Achilles remains stuck until the very end, when his anger at himself for Patroclus’ death overcomes his pride at Agamemnon’s slight and he returns to kill Hector. He overcomes his pride again when he keeps his anger in check and returns Hector to Priam at epic’s close. From epic start to epic finish, pride drives the plot.^[31]

Timê

Akin to kleos is timê (τιμή, « respect, honor »), the concept denoting the respectability an honorable man accrues with accomplishment (cultural, political, martial), per his station in life. In Book I, the Greek troubles begin with King Agamemnon’s dishonorable, unkingly behavior—first, by threatening the priest Chryses (1.11), then, by aggravating them in disrespecting Achilles, by confiscating Briseis from him (1.171). The warrior’s consequent rancor against the dishonorable king ruins the Greek military cause.

Hybris

Hybris (Ὕβρις) plays a part similar to timê. The epic takes as its thesis the anger of Achilles and the destruction it brings. Anger disturbs the distance between human beings and the gods. Uncontrolled anger destroys orderly social relationships and upsets the balance of correct actions necessary to keep the gods away from human beings. (footnote Thompson). Despite the epic’s focus on Achilles’ rage, hybris plays a prominent role also, serving as both kindling and fuel for many destructive events. Agamemnon refuses to ransom Chriseis up out of hybris and harms Achilles’ pride when he demands Briseis. Hybris forces Paris to fight against Menelaus. Agamemnon spurs the Greeks to fight, by calling into question Odysseus, Diomedes, and Nestor’s pride, asking why they were cowering and waiting for help when they should be the ones leading the charge. While the events of the Iliad focus on the Achilles’ rage and the destruction it brings on, hybris fuels and stokes them both.^[32]

Menis

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

The Wrath of Achilles (1819), by Michel Drolling.

The poem’s initial word, μῆνιν (mēnin, accusativeof μῆνις, mēnis, « wrath, rage, fury »), establishes the Iliad’s principal theme: The « Wrath of Achilles ».^[33] His personal rage and wounded soldier’s vanity propel the story: the Greeks’ faltering in battle, the slayings of Patroclus and Hector, and the fall of Troy. In Book I, the Wrath of Achilles first emerges in the Achilles-convoked meeting, between the Greek kings and the seer Calchas. King Agamemnon dishonours Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, by refusing with a threat the restitution of his daughter, Chryseis—despite the proffered ransom of « gifts beyond count ».^[34] The insulted priest prays his god’s help, and a nine-day rain of divine plague arrows falls upon the Greeks. Moreover, in that meeting, Achilles accuses Agamemnon of being « greediest for gain of all men ».^[35] To that, Agamemnon replies:

But here is my threat to you.
Even as Phoibos Apollo is taking away my Chryseis.
I shall convey her back in my own ship, with my own
followers; but I shall take the fair-cheeked Briseis,
your prize, I myself going to your shelter, that you may learn well
how much greater I am than you, and another man may shrink back
from likening himself to me and contending against me.^[36]

After that, only Athena stays Achilles’s wrath. He vows to never again obey orders from Agamemnon. Furious, Achilles cries to his mother, Thetis, who persuades Zeus’s divine intervention—favouring the Trojans—until Achilles’s rights are restored. Meanwhile, Hector leads the Trojans to almost pushing the Greeks back to the sea (Book XII). Later, Agamemnon contemplates defeat and retreat to Greece (Book XIV). Again, the Wrath of Achilles turns the war’s tide in seeking vengeance when Hector kills Patroclus. Aggrieved, Achilles tears his hair and dirties his face. Thetis comforts her mourning son, who tells her:

So it was here that the lord of men Agamemnon angered me.
Still, we will let all this be a thing of the past, and for all our
sorrow beat down by force the anger deeply within us.
Now I shall go, to overtake that killer of a dear life,
Hektor; then I will accept my own death, at whatever
time Zeus wishes to bring it about, and the other immortals.^[37]

Accepting the prospect of death as fair price for avenging Patroclus, he returns to battle, dooming Hector and Troy, thrice chasing him ’round the Trojan walls, before slaying him, then dragging the corpse behind his chariot, back to camp.

Giacobbe Giusti, HOMERE: ILIADE

Achilles Slays Hector, by Peter Paul Rubens (1630–35).

Date and textual history

The poem dates to the archaic period of Classical Antiquity. Scholarly consensus mostly places it in the 8th century BC, although some favour a 7th-century date. Herodotus, having consulted the Oracle at Dodona, placed Homer and Hesiod at approximately 400 years before his own time, which would place them at c.850 BC.^[38]

The historical backdrop of the poem is the time of the Late Bronze Age collapse, in the early 12th century BC. Homer is thus separated from his subject matter by about 400 years, the period known as the Greek Dark Ages. Intense scholarly debate has surrounded the question of which portions of the poem preserve genuine traditions from the Mycenaean period. The Catalogue of Ships in particular has the striking feature that its geography does not portray Greece in the Iron Age, the time of Homer, but as it was before the Dorian invasion.

The title Ἰλιάς « Ilias » (genitive Ἰλιάδος « Iliados ») is elliptic for ἡ ποίησις Ἰλιάς « he poíesis Iliás », meaning « the Trojan poem ». Ἰλιάς, « of Troy », is the specifically feminine adjective form from Ἴλιον, « Troy »; the masculine adjective form would be Ἰλιακός or Ἴλιος.^[39] It is used by Herodotus.^[40]

Venetus A, copied in the 10th century AD, is the oldest fully extant manuscript of the Iliad.^[41] The first edition of the « Iliad », editio princeps, edited by Demetrius Chalcondyles and published by Bernardus Nerlius, and Demetrius Damilas in Florence in 1488/89.^[42]

The Iliad as oral tradition

In antiquity, the Greeks applied the Iliad and the Odyssey as the bases of pedagogy. Literature was central to the educational-cultural function of the itinerant rhapsode, who composed consistent epic poems from memory and improvisation, and disseminated them, via song and chant, in his travels and at the Panathenaic Festival of athletics, music, poetics, and sacrifice, celebrating Athena‘s birthday.^[43]

Originally, Classical scholars treated the Iliad and the Odyssey as written poetry, and Homer as a writer. Yet, by the 1920s, Milman Parry(1902–1935) had launched a movement claiming otherwise. His investigation of the oral Homeric style— »stock epithets » and « reiteration » (words, phrases, stanzas)—established that these formulae were artifacts of oral tradition easily applied to a hexametricline. A two-word stock epithet (e.g. « resourceful Odysseus ») reiteration may complement a character name by filling a half-line, thus, freeing the poet to compose a half-line of « original » formulaic text to complete his meaning.^[44] In Yugoslavia, Parry and his assistant, Albert Lord(1912–1991), studied the oral-formulaic composition of Serbian oral poetry, yielding the Parry/Lord thesis that established oral traditionstudies, later developed by Eric Havelock, Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, and Gregory Nagy.

In The Singer of Tales (1960), Lord presents likenesses between the tragedies of the Greek Patroclus, in the Iliad, and of the Sumerian Enkidu, in the Epic of Gilgamesh, and claims to refute, with « careful analysis of the repetition of thematic patterns », that the Patroclus storyline upsets Homer’s established compositional formulae of « wrath, bride-stealing, and rescue »; thus, stock-phrase reiteration does not restrict his originality in fitting story to rhyme.^[45]^[46] Likewise, in The Arming Motif, Prof. James Armstrong reports that the poem’s formulaeyield richer meaning because the « arming motif » diction—describing Achilles, Agamemnon, Paris, and Patroclus—serves to « heighten the importance of … an impressive moment », thus, « [reiteration] creates an atmosphere of smoothness », wherein, Homer distinguishes Patroclus from Achilles, and foreshadows the former’s death with positive and negative turns of phrase.^[47]^[48]

In the Iliad, occasional syntactic inconsistency may be an oral tradition effect—for example, Aphrodite is « laughter-loving », despite being painfully wounded by Diomedes (Book V, 375); and the divine representations may mix Mycenaean and Greek Dark Age (c. 1150–800 BC) mythologies, parallelling the hereditary basileis nobles (lower social rank rulers) with minor deities, such as Scamander, et al.^[49]

Depiction of infantry combat

Despite Mycenae and Troy being maritime powers, the Iliad features no sea battles.^[50] So, the Trojan shipwright (of the ship that transported Helen to Troy), Phereclus, fights afoot, as an infantryman.^[51] The battle dress and armour of hero and soldier are well-described. They enter battle in chariots, launching javelins into the enemy formations, then dismount—for hand-to-hand combat with yet more javelin throwing, rock throwing, and if necessary hand to hand sword and a shoulder-borne hoplon (shield) fighting.^[52] Ajax the Greater, son of Telamon, sports a large, rectangular shield (σάκος, sakos) with which he protects himself and Teucer, his brother:

Ninth came Teucer, stretching his curved bow.

He stood beneath the shield of Ajax, son of Telamon.

As Ajax cautiously pulled his shield aside,

Teucer would peer out quickly, shoot off an arrow,

hit someone in the crowd, dropping that soldier

right where he stood, ending his life—then he’d duck back,

crouching down by Ajax, like a child beside its mother.

Ajax would then conceal him with his shining shield.

(Iliad 8.267–72, Ian Johnston, translator)

Ajax’s cumbersome shield is more suitable for defence than for offence, while his cousin, Achilles, sports a large, rounded, octagonal shield that he successfully deploys along with his spear against the Trojans:

Just as a man constructs a wall for some high house,

using well-fitted stones to keep out forceful winds,

that’s how close their helmets and bossed shields lined up,

shield pressing against shield, helmet against helmet

man against man. On the bright ridges of the helmets,

horsehair plumes touched when warriors moved their heads.

That’s how close they were to one another.

(Iliad 16.213–17, Ian Johnston, translator)

In describing infantry combat, Homer names the phalanx formation,^[53]but most scholars do not believe the historical Trojan War was so fought.^[54] In the Bronze Age, the chariot was the main battle transport-weapon (e.g. the Battle of Kadesh). The available evidence, from the Dendra armour and the Pylos Palace paintings, indicate the Mycenaeans used two-man chariots, with a long-spear-armed principal rider, unlike the three-man Hittite chariots with short-spear-armed riders, and unlike the arrow-armed Egyptian and Assyrian two-man chariots. Nestor spearheads his troops with chariots; he advises them:

In your eagerness to engage the Trojans,

don’t any of you charge ahead of others,

trusting in your strength and horsemanship.

And don’t lag behind. That will hurt our charge.

Any man whose chariot confronts an enemy’s

should thrust with his spear at him from there.

That’s the most effective tactic, the way

men wiped out city strongholds long ago —

their chests full of that style and spirit.

(Iliad 4.301–09, Ian Johnston, translator)

Although Homer’s depictions are graphic, it can be seen in the very end that victory in war is a far more somber occasion, where all that is lost becomes apparent. On the other hand, the funeral games are lively, for the dead man’s life is celebrated. This overall depiction of war runs contrary to many other^{[citation needed]} ancient Greek depictions, where war is an aspiration for greater glory.

Influence on classical Greek warfare

While the Homeric poems (the Iliad in particular) were not necessarily revered scripture of the ancient Greeks, they were most certainly seen as guides that were important to the intellectual understanding of any educated Greek citizen. This is evidenced by the fact that in the late fifth century BC, « it was the sign of a man of standing to be able to recite the Iliad and Odyssey by heart. »^[55] Moreover, it can be argued that the warfare shown in the Iliad, and the way in which it was depicted, had a profound and very traceable effect on Greek warfare in general. In particular, the effect of epic literature can be broken down into three categories: tactics, ideology, and the mindset of commanders. In order to discern these effects, it is necessary to take a look at a few examples from each of these categories.

Much of the detailed fighting in the Iliad is done by the heroes in an orderly, one-on-one fashion. Much like the Odyssey, there is even a set ritual which must be observed in each of these conflicts. For example, a major hero may encounter a lesser hero from the opposing side, in which case the minor hero is introduced, threats may be exchanged, and then the minor hero is slain. The victor often strips the body of its armor and military accoutrements.^[56] Here is an example of this ritual and this type of one-on-one combat in the Iliad:

There Telamonian Ajax struck down the son of Anthemion, Simoeisios in his stripling’s beauty, whom once his mother descending from Ida bore beside the banks of Simoeis when she had followed her father and mother to tend the sheepflocks. Therefore they called him Simoeisios; but he could not render again the care of his dear parents; he was short-lived, beaten down beneath the spear of high-hearted Ajax, who struck him as he first came forward beside the nipple of the right breast, and the bronze spearhead drove clean through the shoulder.^[57]

The biggest issue in reconciling the connection between the epic fighting of the Iliad and later Greek warfare is the phalanx, or hoplite, warfare seen in Greek history well after Homer’s Iliad. While there are discussions of soldiers arrayed in semblances of the phalanx throughout the Iliad, the focus of the poem on the heroic fighting, as mentioned above, would seem to contradict the tactics of the phalanx. However, the phalanx did have its heroic aspects. The masculine one-on-one fighting of epic is manifested in phalanx fighting on the emphasis of holding one’s position in formation. This replaces the singular heroic competition found in the Iliad.^[58]

One example of this is the Spartan tale of 300 picked men fighting against 300 picked Argives. In this battle of champions, only two men are left standing for the Argives and one for the Spartans. Othryades, the remaining Spartan, goes back to stand in his formation with mortal wounds while the remaining two Argives go back to Argos to report their victory. Thus, the Spartans claimed this as a victory, as their last man displayed the ultimate feat of bravery by maintaining his position in the phalanx.^[59]

In terms of the ideology of commanders in later Greek history, the Iliadhas an interesting effect. The Iliad expresses a definite disdain for tactical trickery, when Hector says, before he challenges the great Ajax:

I know how to storm my way into the struggle of flying horses; I know how to tread the measures on the grim floor of the war god. Yet great as you are I would not strike you by stealth, watching for my chance, but openly, so, if perhaps I might hit you.^[60]

However, despite examples of disdain for this tactical trickery, there is reason to believe that the Iliad, as well as later Greek warfare, endorsed tactical genius on the part of their commanders. For example, there are multiple passages in the Iliad with commanders such as Agamemnon or Nestor discussing the arraying of troops so as to gain an advantage. Indeed, the Trojan War is won by a notorious example of Greek guile in the Trojan Horse. This is even later referred to by Homer in the Odyssey. The connection, in this case, between guileful tactics of the Greeks in the Iliad and those of the later Greeks is not a difficult one to find. Spartan commanders, often seen as the pinnacle of Greek military prowess, were known for their tactical trickery, and, for them, this was a feat to be desired in a commander. Indeed, this type of leadership was the standard advice of Greek tactical writers.^[61]

Ultimately, while Homeric (or epic) fighting is certainly not completely replicated in later Greek warfare, many of its ideals, tactics, and instruction are.^[62]

Hans van Wees argues that the period that the descriptions of warfare relate can be pinned down fairly specifically—to the first half of the 7th century BC.^[63]

Influence on the arts and literature

The Iliad was a standard work of great importance already in Classical Greece and remained so throughout the Hellenistic and Byzantineperiods. Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. Aeschylus‘ trilogy, the Oresteia, comprising Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers and The Eumenides, follows the story of Agamemnon after his return from the war. Homer also came to be of great influence in European culture with the resurgence of interest in Greek antiquity during the Renaissance, and it remains the first and most influential work of the Western canon. In its full form the text made its return to Italy and Western Europe beginning in the 15th century, primarily through translations into Latin and the vernacular languages.

Prior to this reintroduction, however, a shortened Latin version of the poem, known as the Ilias Latina, was very widely studied and read as a basic school text. The West tended to view Homer as unreliable as they believed they possessed much more down to earth and realistic eyewitness accounts of the Trojan War written by Dares and Dictys Cretensis, who were supposedly present at the events. These late antique forged accounts formed the basis of several eminently popular medieval chivalric romances, most notably those of Benoît de Sainte-Maure and Guido delle Colonne. These in turn spawned many others in various European languages, such as the first printed English book, the 1473 Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye. Other accounts read in the Middle Ages were antique Latin retellings such as the Excidium Troiae and works in the vernaculars such as the Icelandic Troy Saga. Even without Homer, the Trojan War story had remained central to Western European medieval literary culture and its sense of identity. Most nations and several royal houses traced their origins to heroes at the Trojan War. Britain was supposedly settled by the Trojan Brutus, for instance.^{[citation needed]}

William Shakespeare used the plot of the Iliad as source material for his play Troilus and Cressida, but focused on a medieval legend, the love story of Troilus, son of King Priam of Troy, and Cressida, daughter of the Trojan soothsayer Calchas. The play, often considered to be a comedy, reverses traditional views on events of the Trojan War and depicts Achilles as a coward, Ajax as a dull, unthinking mercenary, etc.

William Theed the elder made an impressive bronze statue of Thetis as she brought Achilles his new armor forged by Hephaesthus. It has been on display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City since 2013.

Robert Browning‘s poem Development discusses his childhood introduction to the matter of the Iliad and his delight in the epic, as well as contemporary debates about its authorship.

20th century

Simone Weil wrote the essay « The Iliad or the Poem of Force » in 1939, shortly after the commencement of World War II. The essay describes how the Iliad demonstrates the way force, exercised to the extreme in war, reduces both victim and aggressor to the level of the slave and the unthinking automaton.^[64]
The 1954 Broadway musical The Golden Apple, by librettist John Treville Latouche and composer Jerome Moross, was freely adapted from the Iliad and the Odyssey, re-setting the action to America‘s Washington state in the years after the Spanish–American War, with events inspired by the Iliad in Act One and events inspired by the Odyssey in Act Two.
Christopher Logue‘s poem War Music, an « account », not a translation, of the Iliad, was begun in 1959 as a commission for radio. He continued working on it until his death in 2011. Described by Tom Holland as « one of the most remarkable works of post-war literature », it has been an influence on Kate Tempest and Alice Oswald, who says that it « unleashes a forgotten kind of theatrical energy into the world ».^[65]
Christa Wolf‘s novel Cassandra (1983) is a critical engagement with the Iliad. Wolf’s narrator is Cassandra, whose thoughts we hear at the moment just before her murder by Clytemnestra in Sparta. Wolf’s narrator presents a feminist’s view of the war, and of war in general. Cassandra’s story is accompanied by four essays which Wolf delivered as the Frankfurter Poetik-Vorlesungen. The essays present Wolf’s concerns as a writer and rewriter of this canonical story and show the genesis of the novel through Wolf’s own readings and in a trip she took to Greece.
David Melnick‘s Men in Aida (cf. μῆνιν ἄειδε) (1983) is a postmodern homophonic translation of Book One into a farcical bathhouse scenario, preserving the sounds but not the meaning of the original.
Marion Zimmer Bradley‘s 1987 novel The Firebrand retells the story from the point of view of Kassandra, a princess of Troy and a prophetess who is cursed by Apollo.

Contemporary popular culture

Dan Simmons‘ epic science fiction adaptation/tribute Ilium was released in 2003, receiving a Locus Award for best science fiction novel of 2003.^{[citation needed]}
Troy (2004), a loose film adaptation of the Iliad, received mixed reviews but was a commercial success, particularly in international sales. It grossed $133 million in the United States and $497 million worldwide, making it the 188th top-grossing movie of all time.^[66]
Eric Shanower‘s Image Comics series Age of Bronze, which began in 1998, retells the legend of the Trojan War.^[67]^[68]^[69]
Alice Oswald‘s sixth collection, Memorial (2011),^[70] is based on but departs from the narrative form of the Iliad to focus on, and so commemorate, the individually-named characters whose deaths are mentioned in that poem.^[71]^[72]^[73] Later in October 2011, Memorial was shortlisted for the T. S. Eliot Prize,^[74] but in December 2011, Oswald withdrew the book from the shortlist,^[75]^[76] citing concerns about the ethics of the prize’s sponsors.^[77]
The Rage of Achilles, by American author and Yale Writers’ Conference founder Terence Hawkins, recounts the Iliad as a novel in modern, sometimes graphic language. Informed by Julian Jaynes‘ theory of the bicameral mind and the historicity of the Trojan War, it depicts its characters as real men to whom the gods appear only as hallucinations or command voices during the sudden and painful transition to truly modern consciousness.^{[citation needed]}
The Righteous Dark, by American author Jake Enholm, features a main character named Oddy based on Odysseus who is an artificial intelligence fighting other artificially intelligent beings in a war between two star systems in the future. The war lasts for ten years, and ends with Oddy defeating the Trojan-like enemy by embedding his own mind inside a disguised upgrade to the enemy’s operating system.^[78]
And Then There Was Silence, a 2001 song from the german power metal band Blind Guardian.

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliade

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliad

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 8 février 2019

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Geographical Review. 19 (3): 420–443. doi:10.2307/209149. JSTOR 209149. Smith, Erwin; Schlaich, et al. "Rome, etruscan, Formgebung, Frank (1984). Die Stadt im Altertum. München: C.H. Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-03172-4. Lampe, Frank Frost; Johnson, Future, G. (1970). "The Medianum and the Roman Apartment". Phoenix. 24 (4): 342–347. doi:10.2307/1087740. ISSN 0031-8299. JSTOR 1087740. Hodge, Gardner's Art Through The Ages: The Western Perspective, Günther, George H. (2006). Not built in a day: exploring the architecture of Rome. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-7867-1749-1. Ulrich, giacobbe giusti, Glenn R. (2002). "Regionaries-Type Insulae 2: Architectural/Residential Units at Rome". American Journal of Archaeology. 106 (3): 411–434. doi:10.2307/4126281. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 4126281., Glenn R. (2004). "The Meaning of "Insula" in Roman Residential Terminology". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 49: 47–84. doi:10.2307/4238817. ISSN 0065-6801. JSTOR 4238817. Sullivan, Guy P.R. (1998). "Villa rustica alimentaria et annonaria". In Frazer, Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Heather; Hobbs, Helen (2005), Henry Beauchamp; Birch, High Technology Ceramics: Past, Historische Talsperren, History of Technology, Hubert (2002), Hugh; Fleming, in Garbrecht, in Kingery, in Wikander, ISBN 0714822140 Hermansen, ISBN 978-0-432-15090-0 Storey, ISBN 978-0-495-00479-0 Harris, ISBN 978-0-521-39326-3 O'Flaherty, ISBN 978-0-7156-2194-3 Hodge, ISBN 978-0-7478-0157-3 Ros, ISBN 978-3-421-03062-7 Henig, ISBN 978-3-87919-145-1 Schnitter, ISBN 978-3-87919-145-1 Semple, ISBN 978-90-04-11123-3 Honour, ISBN 978-90-04-11123-3 Wikander, ISBN 978-90-04-11123-3 Wilson, J. (2002), J. B. (1956). Nero's Golden House. Antiquity. 30. pp. 217–19. Wikander, J. J. (1974), Janet (1990), Jörg (1996), Jürgen (1985), John (2005). A world history of art. Laurence King Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85669-451-3. James, Joseph (1996). "Warehouses and Granaries in Caesarea Maritima". In Raban, Journal of Roman Archaeology, JSTOR 1192605 Benevolo, JSTOR 3050861 Métreaux, JSTOR 3102810 Smith, JSTOR 3184857 Wilson Jones, JSTOR 3643076 Demandt, JSTOR 506969 Lechtman, JSTOR 630416 DeLaine, Juan C. (2003), Judy A. (1996). Surfaces: Visual Research for Artists, K.; Waelkens, Karen E. (1996). "The Roman Theater at Carthage (the theater's substructures, Klaus; Kessener, Konstruktion", Kuppeln aller Zeiten, labour, Lawrence (1992). A new topographical dictionary of ancient Rome. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4300-6. Ritti, Leiden: Brill, Leonardo (1993). Die Geschichte der Stadt. Frankfurt/Main New York: Campus-Verl. ISBN 978-3-593-34906-0. Bunson, Leonhard (1875). "Horreum". In Smith, Linn (1986), London: Duckworth, London: Peter Davies, Lynne (1999), M.; Deckers, Madrid Baker, Margaret Ann (2004). Imago triumphalis: the function and significance of triumphal imagery for Italian Renaissance rulers. Peter Lang., Mark (2000). Principles of Roman architecture. New Haven, Martin (2002), Martin (ed), Mathias (2002), Matthew (2009). "Engineering". Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-1027-1. Bomgardner, Michael. Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors A.D. 425-600. The Cambridge Ancient History. Volume XIV. Cambridge University Press. Part III: East and West: Economy and Society. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780, Michael; Fantham, Miguel; Castillo, N.C.: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-0822-1. Kolb, Niklaus (1978), Niklaus (1987a), Niklaus (1987b), Niklaus (1987c), Norman (1970), Norman (1971), Osprey Publishing, p. 170, Patrick; Chanson, Paul (1986), Paul (2007), Peter (2006). Christians at Rome in the first two centuries : from Paul to Valentinus. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-8102-3. Lancaster, Phaidon, Phoenix, plan and the identification of architectural elements)". American Journal of Archaeology. 100 (3): 449–489. doi:10.2307/507025. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 507025. Schmitz, Power and the Ancient Economy", pp. 117–139 Richardson, pp. 138–163 Rook, pp. 151–179 Wikander, pp. 18–19, pp. 1–17, pp. 1–32, pp. 24–34, pp. 25–49, pp. 305–319 Forbes, pp. 331–339, pp. 371–400, pp. 38–44 Mark, pp. 401–410, pp. 57–74, pp. 75–96, pp. 9–20, Present, Robert James (1993). Studies in ancient technology. 2. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-00622-5. Fürst, Robert; Hutchinson, Roger B. (2007). Roman Woodworking. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10341-0. Vitrivius (1914). The Ten Books on Architecture, Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, Roman Baths in Britain, Roman Bridges, Rosalie F.; Baker, Samuel (1905). History of Ancient Pottery: Greek, Stefan (1998). The architecture of Rome: an architectural history in 400 presentations. Edition Axel Menges. ISBN 978-3-930698-60-8. Gagarin, Stella Grobel (1972). "A Mosaic Floor from a Roman Villa at Anaploga" (PDF). Hesperia. 41 (3): 332–354. doi:10.2307/147437. ISSN 0018-098X. JSTOR 147437. Morris, Stephen Denison (1911). The American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal. Jameson & Morse. Potter, Stuttgart, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, subscription required Döring, Technology and Change in History, Technology and Culture, The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, The Journal of Hellenic Studies, The Journal of Roman Studies, The Woodwork of Greek Roofs, Tony (1992), Tullia; Grewe, Ulrich; Grundmann, University of Pennsylvania. ISBN 978-0-924171-59-8. Miller, W. (1989). "Invisible Cities: the Beginning of Etruscan Urbanization". Atti del Secondo Congresso Internazionale Etrusco. Roma, W. D., Wadsworth Publishing, William (2000). The American Highway: The History and Culture of Roads in the United States. Jefferson, William. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray. Schnitter, World Archaeology, [Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

The Colosseum in Rome, Italy; the classical orders are used, but purely for aesthetic effect.

The Maison Carrée at Nîmes in France, one of the best preserved Roman temples. A mid-sized Augustanprovincial temple of the Imperial cult.

The Alcántara Bridge, Spain, a masterpiece of ancient bridge building

The Baths of Diocletian, Rome

The Severan Basilica in Leptis Magna

An area at the Ostia Anticaarchaeological site: at one time, shops were located here

« Roman baroque », Leptis Magna, Arch of Septimus Severus

Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans,^{[citation needed]} but was different from Greek buildings, becoming a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered one body of classical architecture. Roman architecture flourished in the Roman Republic and even more so under the Empire, when the great majority of surviving buildings were constructed. It used new materials, particularly concrete, and newer technologies such as the archand the dome to make buildings that were typically strong and well-engineered. Large numbers remain in some form across the empire, sometimes complete and still in use to this day.

Roman Architecture covers the period from the establishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to about the 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassified as Late Antique or Byzantine architecture. Almost no substantial examples survive from before about 100 BC, and most of the major survivals are from the later empire, after about 100 AD. Roman architectural style continued to influence building in the former empire for many centuries, and the style used in Western Europe beginning about 1000 is called Romanesque architecture to reflect this dependence on basic Roman forms.

The Romans only began to achieve significant originality in architecture around the beginning of the Imperial period, after they had combined aspects of their original Etruscan architecture with others taken from Greece,^{[citation needed]}including most elements of the style we now call classical architecture. They moved from trabeated construction mostly based on columns and lintels to one based on massive walls, punctuated by arches, and later domes, both of which greatly developed under the Romans. The classical orders now became largely decorative rather than structural, except in colonnades. Stylistic developments included the Tuscan and Composite orders; the first being a shortened, simplified variant on the Doric order and the Composite being a tall order with the floral decoration of the Corinthian and the scrolls of the Ionic.^{[citation needed]} The period from roughly 40 BC to about 230 AD saw most of the greatest achievements, before the Crisis of the Third Century and later troubles reduced the wealth and organizing power of the central government.

The Romans produced massive public buildings and works of civil engineering, and were responsible for significant developments in housing and public hygiene, for example their public and private baths and latrines, under-floor heating in the form of the hypocaust, micaglazing (examples in Ostia Antica), and piped hot and cold water (examples in Pompeii and Ostia).

Overview

Despite the technical developments of the Romans, which took their buildings far away from the basic Greek conception where columns were needed to support heavy beams and roofs, they were very reluctant to abandon the classical orders in formal public buildings, even though these had become essentially decorative^{[citation needed]}. However, they did not feel entirely restricted by Greek aestheticconcerns, and treated the orders with considerable freedom.^{[citation needed]}

Innovation started in the 3rd or 2nd century BC with the development of Roman concrete as a readily available adjunct to, or substitute for, stone and brick. More daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete’s strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment.

Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing infrastructure for public use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and Colosseum. These were reproduced at a smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the town walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis, now northern Spain. The administrative structure and wealth of the empire made possible very large projects even in locations remote from the main centres,^[1]as did the use of slave labour, both skilled and unskilled.

Especially under the empire, architecture often served a political function, demonstrating the power of the Roman state in general, and of specific individuals responsible for building. Roman architecture perhaps reached its peak in the reign of Hadrian, whose many achievements include rebuilding the Pantheon in its current form and leaving his mark on the landscape of northern Britain with Hadrian’s Wall.

Origins

While borrowing much from the preceding Etruscan architecture, such as the use of hydraulics and the construction of arches, Roman prestige architecture remained firmly under the spell of Ancient Greek architecture and the classical orders.^[2] This came initially from Magna Graecia, the Greek colonies in southern Italy, and indirectly from Greek influence on the Etruscans, but after the Roman conquest of Greece directly from the best classical and Hellenistic examples in the Greek world.^{[citation needed]} The influence is evident in many ways; for example, in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as a place and manner of dining. Roman builders employed Greeks in many capacities, especially in the great boom in construction in the early Empire.^{[citation needed]}

Roman Architectural Revolution

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

The Roman Pantheon was the largest dome in the world for more than a millennium.^[3] It is the largest unreinforced solid concrete dome to this day^[4]

The Roman Architectural Revolution, also known as the Concrete Revolution,^[5]^[6]^[7]was the widespread use in Roman architecture of the previously little-used architectural forms of the arch, vault, and dome. For the first time in history, their potential was fully exploited in the construction of a wide range of civil engineering structures, public buildings, and military facilities. These included amphitheatres, aqueducts, baths, bridges, circuses, dams, domes, harbours, temples, and theatres.

A crucial factor in this development, which saw a trend toward monumental architecture, was the invention of Roman concrete (opus caementicium), which led to the liberation of shapes from the dictates of the traditional materials of stone and brick.^[8]

These enabled the building of the many aqueducts throughout the empire, such as the Aqueduct of Segovia, the Pont du Gard, and the eleven aqueducts of Rome. The same concepts produced numerous bridges, some of which are still in daily use, for example the Puente Romano at Mérida in Spain, and the Pont Julien and the bridge at Vaison-la-Romaine, both in Provence, France.^{[citation needed]}

The dome permitted construction of vaulted ceilings without crossbeams and made possible large covered public space such as public baths and basilicas, such as Hadrian’s Pantheon, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, all in Rome.^{[citation needed]}

The Romans first adopted the arch from the Etruscans, and implemented it in their own building. The use of arches that spring directly from the tops of columns was a Roman development, seen from the 1st century AD, that was very widely adopted in medieval Western, Byzantine and Islamic architecture.^{[citation needed]}

Domes

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

Dome of the Pantheon, inner view

The Romans were the first builders in the history of architecture to realize the potential of domes for the creation of large and well-defined interior spaces.^[9]Domes were introduced in a number of Roman building types such as temples, thermae, palaces, mausoleaand later also churches. Half-domes also became a favoured architectural element and were adopted as apses in Christian sacred architecture.

Monumental domes began to appear in the 1st century BC in Romeand the provinces around the Mediterranean Sea. Along with vaults, they gradually replaced the traditional post and lintel construction which makes use of the column and architrave. The construction of domes was greatly facilitated by the invention of concrete, a process which has been termed the Roman Architectural Revolution.^[10] Their enormous dimensions remained unsurpassed until the introduction of structural steel frames in the late 19th century (see List of the world’s largest domes).^[9]^[11]^[12]

Influence on later architecture

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

Palladian Stowe House, by William Kent

Roman architecture supplied the basic vocabulary of Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque architecture, and spread across Christian Europe well beyond the old frontiers of the empire, to Irelandand Scandinavia for example. In the East, Byzantine architecturedeveloped new styles of churches, but most other buildings remained very close to Late Roman forms. The same can be said in turn of Islamic architecture, where Roman forms long continued, especially in private buildings such as houses and the Turkish bath, and civil engineering such as fortifications and bridges.

In Europe the Italian Renaissance saw a conscious revival of correct classical styles, initially purely based on Roman examples. Vitruviuswas respectfully reinterpreted by a series of architectural writers, and the Tuscan and Composite orders formalized for the first time, to give five rather than three orders. After the flamboyance of Baroque architecture, the Neoclassical architecture of the 18th century revived purer versions of classical style, and for the first time added direct influence from the Greek world.

Numerous local classical styles developed, such as Palladian architecture, Georgian architecture and Regency architecture in the English-speaking world, Federal architecture in the United States, and later Stripped Classicism and PWA Moderne.

Roman influences may be found around us today, in banks, government buildings, great houses, and even small houses, perhaps in the form of a porch with Doric columns and a pediment or in a fireplace or a mosaic shower floor derived from a Roman original, often from Pompeii or Herculaneum. The mighty pillars, domes and arches of Rome echo in the New World too, where in Washington, D.C. stand the Capitol building, the White House, the Lincoln Memorial, and other government buildings. All across the US the seats of regional government were normally built in the grand traditions of Rome, with vast flights of stone steps sweeping up to towering pillared porticoes, with huge domes gilded or decorated inside with the same or similar themes that were popular in Rome.

In Britain, a similar enthusiasm has seen the construction of thousands of neo-Classical buildings over the last five centuries, both civic and domestic, and many of the grandest country houses and mansions are purely Classical in style, an obvious example being Buckingham Palace.

Materials

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

Frigidarium of Baths of Diocletian, today Santa Maria degli Angeli

Stone

Marble is not found especially close to Rome, and was only rarely used there before Augustus, who famously boasted that he had found Rome made of brick and left it made of marble, though this was mainly as a facing for brick or concrete. The Temple of Hercules Victor of the late 2nd century BC is the earliest surviving exception in Rome. From Augustus’ reign the quarries at Carrara were extensively developed for the capital, and other sources around the empire exploited,^[13]especially the prestigious Greek marbles like Parian. Travertine limestone was found much closer, around Tivoli, and was used from the end of the Republic; the Colosseum is mainly built of this stone, which has good load-bearing capacity, with a brick core.^[14] Other more or less local stones were used around the empire.^[15]

The Romans were extremely fond of luxury imported coloured marbles with fancy veining, and the interiors of the most important buildings were very often faced with slabs of these, which have usually now been removed even where the building survives. Imports from Greece for this purpose began in the 2nd century BC.^[16]

Roman brick

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

Close-up view of the wall of the Roman shore fort at Burgh Castle, Norfolk, showing alternating courses of flint and brickwork.

The Romans made fired clay bricks from about the beginning of the Empire, replacing earlier sun-dried mud-brick. Roman brick was almost invariably of a lesser height than modern brick, but was made in a variety of different shapes and sizes.^[17]Shapes included square, rectangular, triangular and round, and the largest bricks found have measured over three feet in length.^[18] Ancient Roman bricks had a general size of 1½ Roman feet by 1 Roman foot, but common variations up to 15 inchesexisted. Other brick sizes in ancient Rome included 24″ x 12″ x 4″, and 15″ x 8″ x 10″. Ancient Roman bricks found in France measured 8″ x 8″ x 3″. The Constantine Basilica in Trier is constructed from Roman bricks 15″ square by 1½ » thick.^[19] There is often little obvious difference (particularly when only fragments survive) between Roman bricks used for walls on the one hand, and tiles used for roofing or flooring on the other, so archaeologists sometimes prefer to employ the generic term ceramic building material (or CBM).

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

The St. George Rotunda (4th century) and some remains of Serdicacan be seen in the foreground

The Romans perfected brick-making during the first century of their empire and used it ubiquitously, in public and private construction alike. The Romans took their brickmaking skills everywhere they went, introducing the craft to the local populations.^[19] The Roman legions, which operated their own kilns, introduced bricks to many parts of the empire; bricks are often stamped with the mark of the legion that supervised their production. The use of bricks in southern and western Germany, for example, can be traced back to traditions already described by the Roman architect Vitruvius. In the British Isles, the introduction of Roman brick by the ancient Romans was followed by a 600–700 year gap in major brick production.

Roman concrete

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

Example of opus caementicium on a tomb on the ancient Appian Way in Rome. The original covering has been removed.

Concrete quickly supplanted brick as the primary building material,^{[citation needed]} and more daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes rather than dense lines of columns suspending flat architraves. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete’s strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment.^{[citation needed]}Most of these developments are described by Vitruvius, writing in the first century AD in his work De Architectura.

Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in Mesopotamia, Roman architects perfected Roman concrete and used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and support a great deal of weight. The first use of concrete by the Romans was in the town of Cosasometime after 273 BC. Ancient Roman concrete was a mixture of lime mortar, aggregate, pozzolana, water, and stones, and was stronger than previously-used concretes. The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames where they hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or (more frequently) bricks. The aggregates used were often much larger than in modern concrete, amounting to rubble.

When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong, with a rough surface of bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive stucco or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones called revetment. Concrete construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than building solid stone buildings. The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport. The wooden frames could be used more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently. Concrete is arguably the Roman contribution most relevant to modern architecture.

City design

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

The Temple of Claudius to the south (left) of the Colosseum (model of Imperial Rome at the Museo della civiltà romana in Rome)

The ancient Romans employed regular orthogonal structures on which they molded their colonies.^[20]^[21] ^[22]They probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples, as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by the Etruscans in Italy.^[23] (see Marzabotto)

The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defense and civil convenience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid of streets, and wrapped in a wall for defense. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets crossed the square grid, passing through the central square. A river usually flowed through the city, providing water, transport, and sewage disposal.^[24] Hundreds of towns and cities were built by the Romans throughout their empire. Many European towns, such as Turin, preserve the remains of these schemes, which show the very logical way the Romans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads were equal in width and length, except for two, which were slightly wider than the others. One of these ran east–west, the other, north–south, and they intersected in the middle to form the center of the grid. All roads were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller, hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were constructed where needed. Each square marked off by four roads was called an insula, the Roman equivalent of a modern city block.

Model of the 1st century Philippopolis(Plovdiv) in the Roman period created by arch. Matey Mateev

Each insula was 80 yards (73 m) square, with the land within it divided. As the city developed, each insula would eventually be filled with buildings of various shapes and sizes and crisscrossed with back roads and alleys. Most insulae were given to the first settlers of a Roman city, but each person had to pay to construct his own house.

The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from invaders and to mark the city limits. Areas outside city limits were left open as farmland. At the end of each main road was a large gateway with watchtowers. A portcullis covered the opening when the city was under siege, and additional watchtowers were constructed along the city walls. An aqueduct was built outside the city walls.

The development of Greek and Roman urbanization is relatively well-known, as there are relatively many written sources, and there has been much attention to the subject, since the Romans and Greeks are generally regarded as the main ancestors of modern Western culture. It should not be forgotten, though, that the Etruscans had many considerable towns and there were also other cultures with more or less urban settlements in Europe, primarily of Celtic origin.^[25]

Amphitheatre

The amphitheatre was, with the triumphal arch and basilica, the only major new type of building developed by the Romans.^[26] Some of the most impressive secular buildings are the amphitheatres, over 200 being known and many of which are well preserved, such as that at Arles, as well as its progenitor, the Colosseum in Rome. They were used for gladiatorial contests, public displays, public meetings and bullfights, the tradition of which still survives in Spain. Their typical shape, functions and name distinguish them from Roman theatres, which are more or less semicircular in shape; from the circuses (akin to hippodromes) whose much longer circuits were designed mainly for horse or chariot racing events; and from the smaller stadia, which were primarily designed for athletics and footraces.^[27]

The Amphitheatre of Pompeii, built around 70 BC and buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius 79 AD, once hosted spectacles with gladiators

The earliest Roman amphitheatres date from the middle of the first century BC, but most were built under Imperial rule, from the Augustan period (27 BC–14 AD) onwards.^[28] Imperial amphitheatres were built throughout the Roman empire; the largest could accommodate 40,000–60,000 spectators, and the most elaborate featured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were elaborately decorated with marble, stucco and statuary.^[29] After the end of gladiatorial games in the 5th century and of animal killings in the 6th, most amphitheatres fell into disrepair, and their materials were mined or recycled. Some were razed, and others converted into fortifications. A few continued as convenient open meeting places; in some of these, churches were sited.^[30]

Architecturally, they are typically an example of the Roman use of the classical orders to decorate large concrete walls pierced at intervals, where the columns have nothing to support. Aesthetically, however, the formula is successful.

Basilica

Northern aisle of the Basilica of Maxentius in Rome

The Aula Palatina of Trier, Germany(then part of the Roman province of Gallia Belgica), built during the reign of Constantine I (r. 306-337 AD)

The Roman basilica was a large public building where business or legal matters could be transacted. They were normally where the magistrates held court, and used for other official ceremonies, having many of the functions of the modern town hall. The first basilicas had no religious function at all. As early as the time of Augustus, a public basilica for transacting business had been part of any settlement that considered itself a city, used in the same way as the late medieval covered market houses of northern Europe, where the meeting room, for lack of urban space, was set above the arcades, however. Although their form was variable, basilicas often contained interior colonnades that divided the space, giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides, with an apse at one end (or less often at each end), where the magistrates sat, often on a slightly raised dais. The central aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could penetrate through the clerestory windows.

The oldest known basilica, the Basilica Porcia, was built in Rome in 184 BC by Cato the Elder during the time he was Censor. Other early examples include the basilica at Pompeii (late 2nd century BC). After Christianity became the official religion, the basilica shape was found appropriate for the first large public churches, with the attraction of avoiding reminiscences of the Greco-Roman temple form.

Circus

The Roman circus was a large open-air venue used for public events in the ancient Roman Empire. The circuses were similar to the ancient Greek hippodromes, although circuses served varying purposes and differed in design and construction. Along with theatres and amphitheatres, Circuses were one of the main entertainment sites of the time. Circuses were venues for chariot races, horse races, and performances that commemorated important events of the empire were performed there. For events that involved re-enactments of naval battles, the circus was flooded with water.

The performance space of the Roman circus was normally, despite its name, an oblong rectangle of two linear sections of race track, separated by a median strip running along the length of about two thirds the track, joined at one end with a semicircular section and at the other end with an undivided section of track closed (in most cases) by a distinctive starting gate known as the carceres, thereby creating a circuit for the races.

Forum

The Roman Forum

A forum was a central public open space in a Roman municipium, or any civitas, primarily used as a marketplace, along with the buildings used for shops and the stoas used for open stalls. Other large public buildings were often sited at the edges or close by. Many forums were constructed at remote locations along a road by the magistrate responsible for the road, in which case the forum was the only settlement at the site and had its own name, such as Forum Popili or Forum Livi.^[31]

During the years of the Republic, Augustus claimed he « found the city in brick and left it in marble ».^[32] While chances are high that this was an exaggeration, there is something to be said for the influx of marble use in Roman Forum from 63 BC onwards. During Augustus reign, the Forum was described to have been « a larger, freer space than was the Forum of imperial times. »^[33] The Forum began to take on even more changes upon the arrival of Julius Casear who drew out extensive plans for the market hub. While Casear’s death came prematurely, the ideas himself, as well as Augustus had in regards to the Forum proved to be the most influential for years to come. According to Walter Dennison’s The Roman Forum As Cicero Saw It, the author writes that « the diverting of public business to the larger and splendid imperial fora erected in the vicinity resulted in leaving the general design of the Forum Romanum ».^[33]

Every city had at least one forum of varying size. In addition to its standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gathering place of great social significance, and often the scene of diverse activities, including political discussions and debates, rendezvous, meetings, etc. Much the best known example is the Roman Forum, the earliest of several in Rome.

In new Roman towns the forum was usually located at, or just off, the intersection of the main north-south and east-west streets (the cardoand decumanus). All forums would have a Temple of Jupiter at the north end, and would also contain other temples, as well as the basilica; a public weights and measures table, so customers at the market could ensure they were not being sold short measures; and would often have the baths nearby.

A panoramic view of the Forum Trajanum, with the Trajan’s Column on the far left.

Horreum

The Horrea Epagathiana et Epaphroditiana, a horreum in Ostia (Rome), Italy, built c. 145-150 AD

A horreum was a type of public warehouse used during the ancient Roman period. Although the Latin term is often used to refer to granaries, Roman horrea were used to store many other types of consumables; the giant Horrea Galbae in Rome were used not only to store grain but also olive oil, wine, foodstuffs, clothing and even marble.^[34] By the end of the imperial period, the city of Rome had nearly 300 horrea to supply its demands.^[35] The biggest were enormous, even by modern standards; the Horrea Galbae contained 140 rooms on the ground floor alone, covering an area of some 225,000 square feet (21,000 m²).^[36]

The first horrea were built in Rome towards the end of the 2nd century BC,^[37] with the first known public horreum being constructed by the ill-fated tribune, Gaius Gracchus in 123 BC.^[38] The word came to be applied to any place designated for the preservation of goods; thus it was often used refer to cellars (horrea subterranea), but it could also be applied to a place where artworks were stored,^[39] or even to a library.^[40] Some public horrea functioned somewhat like banks, where valuables could be stored, but the most important class of horrea were those where foodstuffs such as grain and olive oil were stored and distributed by the state.^[41]

The word itself is thought to have linguist roots tied to the word hordeum which in Latin means ‘barley’.^[42] In the John’s Hopkin’s University Press, The Classical Weekly states that « Pliny the Elder does indeed make a distinction between the two words. He describes the horreum as a structure made of brick, the walls of which were not less than three feet thick; it had no windows or openings for ventilation ».^[43] Furthermore, the storehouses would also host oil and wine and also utilize large jars that could serve as cache’s for large amounts of products.These storehouses were also used to house keep large sums of money and were used much like personal storage units today are. Romans were « These horrea were divided and subdivided, so that one could hire only so much space as one wanted, a whole room (cella), a closet (armarium), or only a chest or strong box (arca, arcula, locus, loculus). »^[43]

Insula

Insula in Ostia Antica

Multi-story apartment blocks called insulae catered to a range of residential needs. The cheapest rooms were at the top owing to the inability to escape in the event of a fire and the lack of piped water. Windows were mostly small, facing the street, with iron security bars. Insulae were often dangerous, unhealthy, and prone to fires because of overcrowding and haphazard cooking arrangements.^{[citation needed]} There are examples in the Roman port town of Ostia, that date back to the reign of Trajan, but they seem to have been found only in Rome and a few other places. Elsewhere writers report them as something remarkable, but Livy and Vituvius refer to them in Rome.^[44] External walls were in « Opus Reticulatum » and interiors in « Opus Incertum », which would then be plastered and sometimes painted.

To lighten up the small dark rooms, tenants able to afford a degree of painted colourful murals on the walls. Examples have been found of jungle scenes with wild animals and exotic plants. Imitation windows (trompe l’oeil) were sometimes painted to make the rooms seem less confined.

Ancient Rome had elaborate and luxurious houses owned by the elite. The average house, or in cities apartment, of a commoner or plebe did not contain many luxuries. The domus, or single-family residence, was only for the well-off in Rome, with most having a layout of the closed unit, consisting of one or two rooms. Between 312 and 315 A.D. Rome had 1781 domus and 44,850 of insulae.^[45]

Insulae have been the subject of great debate for historians of Roman culture, defining the various meanings of the word.^[46] Insula was a word used to describe apartment buildings, or the apartments themselves,^[47] meaning apartment, or inhabitable room, demonstrating just how small apartments for Plebes were. Urban divisions were originally street blocks, and later began to divide into smaller divisions, the word insula referring to both blocks and smaller divisions. The insula contained cenacula, tabernae, storage rooms under the stairs, and lower floor shops. Another type of housing unit for Plebes was a cenaculum, an apartment, divided into three individual rooms: cubiculum, exedra, and medianum. Common Roman apartments were mainly masses of smaller and larger structures, many with narrow balconies that present mysteries as to their use, having no doors to access them, and they lacked the excessive decoration and display of wealth that aristocrats’ houses contained. Luxury in houses was not common, as the life of the average person did not consist of being in their houses, as they instead would go to public baths, and engage in other communal activities.

Lighthouses

The Tower of Hercules, a Roman lighthouse in Spain

Many lighthouses were built around the Mediterranean and the coasts of the empire, including the Tower of Herculesat A Coruña in northern Spain, a structure which survives to this day. A smaller lighthouse at Dover, England also exists as a ruin about half the height of the original. The light would have been provided by a fire at the top of the structure.

Ruins of the Roman Thermae in Varna, Bulgaria

Thermae

All Roman cities had at least one thermae, a popular facility for public bathing, exercising and socializing. Exercise might include wrestling and weight-lifting, as well as swimming. Bathing was an important part of the Roman day, where some hours might be spent, at a very low cost subsidized by the government. Wealthier Romans were often accompanied by one or more slaves, who performed any required tasks such as fetching refreshment, guarding valuables, providing towels, and at the end of the session, applying olive oil to their masters’ bodies which was then scraped off with a strigil, a scraper made of wood or bone. Romans did not wash with soap and water as we do now.

Roman bath-houses were also provided for private villas, town housesand forts. They were normally supplied with water from an adjacent river or stream, or by aqueduct. The design of thermae is discussed by Vitruvius in De Architectura.

Temples

« Roman Baroque » Temple of Bacchus at Baalbek, Lebanon

Roman temples were among the most important and richest buildings in Roman culture, though only a few survive in any sort of complete state. Their construction and maintenance was a major part of ancient Roman religion, and all towns of any importance had at least one main temple, as well as smaller shrines. The main room (cella) housed the cult image of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated, and often a small altar for incense or libations. Behind the cella was a room or rooms used by temple attendants for storage of equipment and offerings.

Some remains of many Roman temples survive, above all in Rome itself, but the relatively few near-complete examples were nearly all converted to Christian churches (and sometimes subsequently to mosques), usually a considerable time after the initial triumph of Christianity under Constantine. The decline of Roman religion was relatively slow, and the temples themselves were not appropriated by the government until a decree of the Emperor Honorius in 415. Some of the oldest surviving temples include the Temple of Hercules Victor(mid 2nd century BC) and Temple of Portunus (120-80 BC), both standing within the Forum Boarium.

The Temple of Hercules Victor, Rome, built in the mid-2nd century BC, most likely by Lucius Mummius Achaicus, who won the Achaean War.

The form of the Roman temple was mainly derived from the Etruscan model, but using Greek styles^{[citation needed]}. Roman temples emphasised the front of the building, which followed Greek temple models and typically consisted of wide steps leading to a portico with columns, a pronaos, and usually a triangular pedimentabove, which was filled with statuary in the most grand examples; this was as often in terracotta as stone, and no examples have survived except as fragments. However, unlike the Greek models, which generally gave equal treatment to all sides of the temple, which could be viewed and approached from all directions, the sides and rear of Roman temples might be largely undecorated (as in the Pantheon, Rome and Vic), inaccessible by steps (as in the Maison Carrée and Vic), and even back on to other buildings. As in the Maison Carrée, columns at the side might be half-columns, emerging from (« engaged with » in architectural terminology) the wall.^[48] The platform on which the temple sat was typically raised higher in Roman examples than Greek, with up ten or twelve or more steps rather than the three typical in Greek temples; the Temple of Claudius was raised twenty steps. These steps were normally only at the front, and typically not the whole width of that.

The Temple of Portunus, god of grain storage, keys, livestock and ports.^[49] Rome, built between 120–80 BC

The Greek classical orders in all their details were closely followed in the façades of temples, as in other prestigious buildings. However the idealized proportions between the different elements set out by the only significant Roman writer on architecture to survive, Vitruvius, and subsequent Italian Renaissance writers, do not reflect actual Roman practice, which could be very variable, though always aiming at balance and harmony. Following a Hellenistic trend, the Corinthian order and its variant the Composite order were most common in surviving Roman temples, but for small temples like that at Alcántara, a simple Tuscan order could be used.^[50]

There was considerable local variation in style, as Roman architects often tried to incorporate elements the population expected in its sacred architecture. This was especially the case in Egypt and the Near East, where different traditions of large stone temples were already millennia old. The Romano-Celtic temple was a simple style for small temples found in the Western Empire, and by far the most common type in Roman Britain. It often lacked any of the distinctive classical features, and may have had considerable continuity with pre-Roman temples of the Celtic religion.

Theatres

Roman Theatre (Mérida), Spain

Plovdiv Roman theatre, Bulgaria

Roman theatres were built in all areas of the empire from Spain, to the Middle East. Because of the Romans’ ability to influence local architecture, we see numerous theatres around the world with uniquely Roman attributes.^[51]

These buildings were semi-circular and possessed certain inherent architectural structures, with minor differences depending on the region in which they were constructed. The scaenae frons was a high back wall of the stage floor, supported by columns. The proscaeniumwas a wall that supported the front edge of the stage with ornately decorated niches off to the sides. The Hellenistic influence is seen through the use of the proscaenium. The Roman theatre also had a podium, which sometimes supported the columns of the scaenae frons. The scaenae was originally not part of the building itself, constructed only to provide sufficient background for the actors. Eventually, it became a part of the edifice itself, made out of concrete. The theatre itself was divided into the stage (orchestra) and the seating section (auditorium). Vomitoria or entrances and exits were made available to the audience.^[52]

Villa

Villa of the Mysteries just outside Pompeii, seen from above

A Roman villa was a country house built for the upper class, while a domus was a wealthy family’s house in a town. The Empire contained many kinds of villas, not all of them lavishly appointed with mosaic floors and frescoes. In the provinces, any country house with some decorative features in the Roman style may be called a « villa » by modern scholars.^[53] Some were pleasure palaces such as those— like Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli— that were situated in the cool hills within easy reach of Rome or— like the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum— on picturesque sites overlooking the Bay of Naples. Some villas were more like the country houses of England or Poland, the visible seat of power of a local magnate, such as the famous palace rediscovered at Fishbourne in Sussex.

Suburban villas on the edge of cities were also known, such as the Middle and Late Republican villas that encroached on the Campus Martius, at that time on the edge of Rome, and which can be also seen outside the city walls of Pompeii, including the Villa of the Mysteries, famous for its frescos. These early suburban villas, such as the one at Rome’s Auditorium site^[54] or at Grottarossa in Rome, demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of the villa suburbana in Central Italy. It is possible that these early, suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power (maybe even palaces) of regional strongmen or heads of important families (gentes).

A third type of villa provided the organizational center of the large farming estates called latifundia; such villas might be lacking in luxuries. By the 4th century, villa could simply mean an agricultural estate or holding: Jerome translated the Gospel of Mark (xiv, 32) chorion, describing the olive grove of Gethsemane, with villa, without an inference that there were any dwellings there at all (Catholic Encyclopedia « Gethsemane »).

With the colossal Diocletian’s Palace, built in the countryside but later turned into a fortified city, a form of residential castle emerges, that anticipates the Middle Ages.

Watermills

The initial invention of the watermill appears to have occurred in the hellenized eastern Mediterranean in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great and the rise of Hellenistic science and technology.^[55]^[56]^[57] In the subsequent Roman era, the use of water-power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical water wheelas well as the horizontal water wheel.^[58]^[59] Apart from its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also applied to pounding grain,^[60]^[61]^[62] crushing ore,^[63] sawing stones^[64] and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces.^[65]

Decorative structures

Monoliths

‘

The capital of Trajan’s Column, Rome

In architecture, a monolith is a structure which has been excavated as a unit from a surrounding matrix or outcropping of rock.^[66] Monoliths are found in all types of Roman buildings. They were either: quarried without being moved; or quarried and moved; or quarried, moved and lifted clear off the ground into their position (e.g. architraves); or quarried, moved and erected in an upright position (e.g. columns).

Transporting was done by land or water (or a combination of both), in the later case often by special-built ships such as obelisk carriers.^[67]For lifting operations, ancient cranes were employed since ca. 515 BC,^[68] such as in the construction of Trajan’s Column.^[69]

Obelisks

Obelisco Sallustiano in front of the church of Trinità dei Monti in Rome

An obelisk is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top. These were originally called « tekhenu » by the builders, the ancient Egyptians. The Greeks who saw them used the Greek ‘obeliskos’ to describe them, and this word passed into Latin and then English.^[70] The Romans commissioned obelisks in an ancient Egyptian style. Examples include:

Arles, France – the Arles Obelisk, in Place de la République, a 4th-century obelisk of Romanorigin
Benevento, Italy – three Roman obelisks^[71]^[72]
Munich – obelisk of Titus Sextius Africanus, Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, Kunstareal, 1st century AD, 5.80 m
Rome – there are five ancient Roman obelisks in Rome.

Roman gardens

Gardens in Conimbriga, Portugal

Roman gardens were influenced by Egyptian, Persian, and Greek gardening techniques^{[citation needed]}. In Ancient Latium, a garden was part of every farm. According to Cato the Elder, every garden should be close to the house and should have flower beds and ornamental trees.^[73] Horace wrote that during his time flower gardens became a national indulgence.^[74]

Gardens were not reserved for the extremely wealthy. Excavations in Pompeii show that gardens attaching to residences were scaled down to meet the space constraints of the home of the average Roman. Modified versions of Roman garden designs were adopted in Roman settlements in Africa, Gaul, and Britannia. As town houses were replaced by tall insula (apartment buildings), these urban gardens were replaced by window boxes or roof gardens.^{[citation needed]}

Triumphal arch

The Arch of Titus in Rome, an early Roman imperial triumphal arch with a single archway

Close-up photograph of arch ornamentation

Titus‘ triumphal procession depicted on the Arch of Titus, showing the loot captured from Jerusalem in 81 AD

A triumphal arch is a monumental structure in the shape of an archwaywith one or more arched passageways, often designed to span a road. The origins of the Roman triumphal arch are unclear. There were precursors to the triumphal arch within the Roman world; in Italy, the Etruscans used elaborately decorated single bay arches as gates or portals to their cities. Surviving examples of Etruscan arches can still be seen at Perugia and Volterra.^[75] The two key elements of the triumphal arch – a round-topped arch and a square entablature – had long been in use as separate architectural elements in ancient Greece.

The innovation of the Romans was to use these elements in a single free-standing structure. The columns became purely decorative elements on the outer face of arch, while the entablature, liberated from its role as a building support, became the frame for the civic and religious messages that the arch builders wished to convey.^[76] Little is known about how the Romans viewed triumphal arches. Pliny the Elder, writing in the first century AD, was the only ancient author to discuss them.^[77] He wrote that they were intended to « elevate above the ordinary world » an image of an honoured person usually depicted in the form of a statue with a quadriga.^[77]

The first recorded Roman triumphal arches were set up in the time of the Roman Republic.^[78] Generals who were granted a triumph were termed triumphators and would erect fornices or honorific arches bearing statues to commemorate their victories.^[79] Roman triumphal practices changed significantly at the start of the imperial period when the first Roman Emperor Augustus decreed that only emperors would be granted triumphs. The triumphal arch changed from being a personal monument to being an essentially propagandistic one, serving to announce and promote the presence of the ruler and the laws of the state.^[75] Arches were not necessarily built as entrances, but – unlike many modern triumphal arches – they were often erected across roads and were intended to be passed through, not round.^[80]

Most Roman triumphal arches were built during the imperial period. By the fourth century AD there were 36 such arches in Rome, of which three have survived – the Arch of Titus (AD 81), the Arch of Septimius Severus (203-205) and the Arch of Constantine (312). Numerous arches were built elsewhere in the Roman Empire.^[78] The single arch was the most common, but many triple arches were also built, of which the Triumphal Arch of Orange (circa AD 21) is the earliest surviving example. From the 2nd century AD, many examples of the arcus quadrifrons – a square triumphal arch erected over a crossroads, with arched openings on all four sides – were built, especially in North Africa. Arch-building in Rome and Italy diminished after the time of Trajan (AD 98-117) but remained widespread in the provinces during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD; they were often erected to commemorate imperial visits.^[79]

The Arch of Augustus in Rimini(Ariminum), dedicated to Augustus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC, the oldest surviving Roman triumphal arch

The ornamentation of an arch was intended to serve as a constant visual reminder of the triumph and triumphator. The façade was ornamented with marble columns, and the piers and attics with decorative cornices. Sculpted panels depicted victories and achievements, the deeds of the triumphator, the captured weapons of the enemy or the triumphal procession itself. The spandrels usually depicted flying Victories, while the attic was often inscribed with a dedicatory inscription naming and praising the triumphator. The piers and internal passageways were also decorated with reliefs and free-standing sculptures. The vault was ornamented with coffers. Some triumphal arches were surmounted by a statue or a currus triumphalis, a group of statues depicting the emperor or general in a quadriga.^[75]^[79]

Inscriptions on Roman triumphal arches were works of art in themselves, with very finely cut, sometimes gilded letters. The form of each letter and the spacing between them was carefully designed for maximum clarity and simplicity, without any decorative flourishes, emphasizing the Roman taste for restraint and order. This conception of what later became the art of typography remains of fundamental importance down to the present day.^[80]

Victory columns

Infrastructure

A Roman street in Pompeii

Roads

Roman roads were vital to the maintenance and development of the Roman state, and were built from about 500 BC through the expansion and consolidation of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.^[81] They provided efficient means for the overland movement of armies, officials and civilians, and the inland carriage of official communications andtrade goods.^[82] At the peak of Rome’s development, no fewer than 29 great military highways radiated from the capital, and the Late Empire’s 113 provinces were interconnected by 372 great road links.^[83]^[84] Roman road builders aimed at a regulation width (see Laws and standards above), but actual widths have been measured at between 3.6 ft (1.1 m) and more than 23 ft (7.0 m). Today, the concrete has worn from the spaces around the stones, giving the impression of a very bumpy road, but the original practice was to produce a surface that was no doubt much closer to being flat.

Aqueduct

The Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain

The Pont du Gard, near Vers-Pont-du-Gard, France

The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts in order to bring water from distant sources into their cities and towns, supplying public baths, latrines, fountains and private households. Waste water was removed by complex sewage systems and released into nearby bodies of water, keeping the towns clean and free from effluent. Aqueducts also provided water for mining operations, milling, farms and gardens.

Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, being constructed along a slight downward gradient within conduits of stone, brick or concrete. Most were buried beneath the ground, and followed its contours; obstructing peaks were circumvented or, less often, tunnelled through. Where valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit was carried on bridgework, or its contents fed into high-pressure lead, ceramic or stone pipes and siphoned across. Most aqueduct systems included sedimentation tanks, sluices and distribution tanks to regulate the supply at need.

Rome‘s first aqueduct supplied a water-fountain sited at the city’s cattle market. By the third century AD, the city had eleven aqueducts, sustaining a population of over a million in a water-extravagant economy; most of the water supplied the city’s many public baths. Cities and municipalities throughout the Roman Empire emulated this model, and funded aqueducts as objects of public interest and civic pride, « an expensive yet necessary luxury to which all could, and did, aspire. »^[85]

Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable, and durable; some were maintained into the early modern era, and a few are still partly in use. Methods of aqueduct surveying and construction are noted by Vitruvius in his work De Architectura (1st century BC). The general Frontinus gives more detail in his official report on the problems, uses and abuses of Imperial Rome’s public water supply. Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include the supporting piers of the Aqueduct of Segovia, and the aqueduct-fed cisterns of Constantinople.

Bridges

The Alcántara Bridge, Spain, a masterpiece of ancient bridge building

Roman bridges, built by ancient Romans, were the first large and lasting bridges built.^[86] Roman bridges were built with stone and had the arch as the basic structure (see arch bridge). Most utilized concrete as well, which the Romans were the first to use for bridges.

Roman arch bridges were usually semicircular, although a few were segmental (such as Alconétar Bridge). A segmental arch is an arch that is less than a semicircle.^[87] The advantages of the segmentalarch bridge were that it allowed great amounts of flood water to pass under it, which would prevent the bridge from being swept away during floods and the bridge itself could be more lightweight. Generally, Roman bridges featured wedge-shaped primary arch stones (voussoirs) of the same in size and shape. The Romans built both single spans and lengthy multiple arch aqueducts, such as the Pont du Gard and Segovia Aqueduct. Their bridges featured from an early time onwards flood openings in the piers, e.g. in the Pons Fabricius in Rome (62 BC), one of the world’s oldest major bridges still standing. Roman engineers were the first and until the industrial revolution the only ones to construct bridges with concrete, which they called Opus caementicium. The outside was usually covered with brick or ashlar, as in the Alcántara bridge.

The Romans also introduced segmental arch bridges into bridge construction. The 330 m long Limyra Bridge in southwestern Turkeyfeatures 26 segmental arches with an average span-to-rise ratio of 5.3:1,^[88] giving the bridge an unusually flat profile unsurpassed for more than a millennium. Trajan’s bridge over the Danube featured open-spandrel segmental arches made of wood (standing on 40 m high concrete piers). This was to be the longest arch bridge for a thousand years both in terms of overall and individual span length, while the longest extant Roman bridge is the 790 m long Puente Romano at Mérida.

Canals

Roman canals were typically multi-purpose structures, intended for irrigation, drainage, land reclamation, flood control and navigationwhere feasible. Some navigational canals were recorded by ancient geographers and are still traceable by modern archaeology. Channels which served the needs of urban water supply are covered at the List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire.

Cisterns[edit]

The Basilica Cistern in Constantinople provided water for the Imperial Palace.

Freshwater reservoirs were commonly set up at the termini of aqueducts and their branch lines, supplying urban households, agricultural estates, imperial palaces, thermae or naval bases of the Roman navy.^[89]

Dams

Roman dam construction began in earnest in the early imperial period.^[90] For the most part, it concentrated on the semi-arid fringe of the empire, namely the provinces of North Africa, the Near East, and Hispania.^[91] ^[92]^[93] The relative abundance of Spanish dams below is due partly to more intensive field work there; for Italy only the Subiaco Dams, created by emperor Nero (54–68 AD) for recreational purposes, are attested.^[94]^[90] These dams are noteworthy, though, for their extraordinary height, which remained unsurpassed anywhere in the world until the Late Middle Ages.^[90]

The most frequent dam types were earth- or rock-filled embankment dams and masonry gravity dams.^[95] These served a wide array of purposes, such as irrigation, flood control, river diversion, soil-retention, or a combination of these functions.^[96] The impermeability of Roman dams was increased by the introduction of waterproof hydraulic mortar and especially opus caementicium in the Concrete Revolution. These materials also allowed for bigger structures to be built,^[97] like the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier today,^[98] and the sturdy Harbaqa Dam, both of which consist of a concrete core.

Roman builders were the first to realize the stabilizing effect of archesand buttresses, which they integrated into their dam designs. Previously unknown dam types introduced by the Romans include arch-gravity dams,^[93]^[99] arch dams,;^[100]^[101]^[102] ^[103]^[104] buttress dams,^[105] and multiple-arch buttress dams.^[106]^[107]^[99]^[108]

Defensive walls

Roman walls of Lugo, Spain

The Porta Nigra of Trier, Germany, capital of the Roman province of Gallia Belgica, constructed between 186 and 200 AD

The South gate of Hisarya’s Late Roman fortifications, the largest preserved in Bulgaria

The Romans generally fortified cities, rather than fortresses, but there are some fortified camps, such as the Saxon Shore forts like Porchester Castle in England. City walls were already significant in Etruscan architecture, and in the struggle for control of Italy under the early Republic many more were built, using different techniques. These included tightly-fitting massive irregular polygonal blocks, shaped to fit exactly in a way reminiscent of later Inca work. The Romans called a simple rampart wall an agger; at this date great height was not necessary. The Servian Wallaround Rome was an ambitious project of the early 4th century BC. The wall was up to 10 metres (32.8 ft) in height in places, 3.6 metres (12 ft) wide at its base, 11 km (7 mi) long,^[109] and is believed to have had 16 main gates, though many of these are mentioned only from writings, with no other known remains. Some of it had a fossa or ditch in front, and an agger behind, and it was enough to deter Hannibal. Later the Aurelian Wall replaced it, enclosing an expanded city, and using more sophisticated designs, with small forts at intervals.

The Romans walled major cities and towns in areas they saw as vulnerable, and parts of many walls remain incorporated in later defensive fortifications, as at Córdoba (2nd century BC), Chester(earth and wood in the 70s AD, stone from c. 100), and York (from 70s AD). Strategic walls across open country were far rarer, and Hadrian’s Wall (from 122) and the Antonine Wall (from 142, abandoned only 8 years after completion) are the most significant examples, both on the Pictish frontier of Roman Britain…

Architectural features

Mosaics

On his return from campaigns in Greece, the general Sulla brought back what is probably the most well-known element of the early imperial period, the mosaic, a decoration made of colourful chips of stone inserted into cement. This tiling method took the empire by storm in the late first century and the second century and in the Roman home joined the well known mural in decorating floors, walls, and grottoes with geometric and pictorial designs.

Interior view with mosaics of Villa Armira in Bulgaria

There were two main techniques in Greco-Roman mosaic: opus vermiculatumused tiny tesserae, typically cubes of 4 millimeters or less, and was produced in workshops in relatively small panels which were transported to the site glued to some temporary support. The tiny tesserae allowed very fine detail, and an approach to the illusionism of painting. Often small panels called emblemata were inserted into walls or as the highlights of larger floor-mosaics in coarser work. The normal technique, however, was opus tessellatum, using larger tesserae, which were laid on site.^[110] There was a distinct native Italian style using black on a white background, which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work.^[111]

A specific genre of Roman mosaic obtained the name asaroton (Greek « unswept floor »). It represented an optical illusion of the leftovers from a feast on the floor of rich houses.^[112]

Hypocaust

Part-excavated hypocaust under the floor in a Roman villa in Vieux-la-Romaine, near Caen, France

A hypocaust was an ancient Roman system of underfloor heating, used to heat houses with hot air. The Roman architect Vitruvius, writing about the end of the 1st century B.C., attributes their invention to Sergius Orata. Many remains of Roman hypocausts have survived throughout Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. The hypocaust was an invention which improved the hygiene and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of modern central heating.

Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths (thermae), houses and other buildings, whether public or private. The floor was raised above the ground by pillars, called pilae stacks, with a layer of tiles, then a layer of concrete, then another of tiles on top; and spaces were left inside the walls so that hot air and smoke from the furnace would pass through these enclosed areas and out of flues in the roof, thereby heating but not polluting the interior of the room.

Roman roofs

In Sicily truss roofs presumably appeared as early as 550 BC.^[113]Their potential was fully realized in the Roman period, which saw trussed roofs over 30 wide spanning the rectangular spaces of monumental public buildings such as temples, basilicas, and later churches. Such spans were three times as wide as the widest prop-and-lintel roofs and only surpassed by the largest Roman domes.^[114]

The largest truss roof by span of ancient Rome covered the Aula Regia (throne room) built for emperor Domitian (81–96 AD) on the Palatine Hill, Rome. The timber truss roof had a width of 31.67 m, slightly surpassing the postulated limit of 30 m for Roman roof constructions. Tie-beam trusses allowed for much larger spans than the older prop-and-lintel system and even concrete vaulting. Nine out of the ten largest rectangular spaces in Roman architecture were bridged this way, the only exception being the groin vaulted Basilica of Maxentius.^[114]

Spiral stairs

The spiral stair is a type of stairway which, due to its complex helicalstructure, was introduced relatively late into architecture. Although the oldest example dates back to the 5th century BC,^[115] it was only in the wake of the influential design of Trajan’s Column that this space-saving new type permanently caught hold in Roman architecture.^[116]

Apart from the triumphal columns in the imperial cities of Rome and Constantinople, other types of buildings such as temples, thermae, basilicas and tombs were also fitted with spiral stairways.^[116] Their notable absence in the towers of the Aurelian Wall indicates that although used in medieval castles, they did not yet figure prominently in Roman military engineering.^[116] By late antiquity, separate stair towers were constructed adjacent to the main buildings, as in the Basilica of San Vitale.

The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to Christian and Islamic architecture.

Significant buildings and areas

Hadrian’s Wall, built in 122 AD in Roman Britain, in what is now Northern England

Public buildings

Baths of Trajan – these were a massive thermae, a bathing and leisure complex, built in ancient Rome starting from 104 AD and dedicated during the Kalends of July in 109.
Baths of Diocletian – in ancient Rome, these were the grandest of the public baths (thermae), built by successive emperors
Baths of Caracalla
Colosseum
Trajan’s Column, in Rome
Circus Maximus, in Rome
Curia Hostilia (Senate House), in Rome
Domus Aurea (former building)
Pantheon
Tower of Hercules
Tropaeum Traiani
Hadrian’s Villa
Verona Arena, in Verona
Serdica and the Church of St. George, Sofia
Philippopolis and the Roman theatre, Plovdiv
Baths of Odessos, Varna

Private architecture

Alyscamps – a necropolis in Arles, France, one of the most famous necropolises of the ancient world
Domus
Catacombs of Rome
Roman villa
Pompeii and Herculaneum

Civil engineering

Roman engineering – Romans are famous for their advanced engineering accomplishments, although some of their own inventions were improvements on older ideas, concepts and inventions.
Roman watermill

Military engineering

Footnotes

^ Henig, 26
^ Henig, 27
^ « BUILDING BIG: Pantheon ». PBS. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
^ « The Roman Pantheon: The Triumph of Concrete ». Roman Concrete. Retrieved 16 September 2014.
^ DeLaine 1990, p. 407.
^ Rook 1992, pp. 18f..
^ Gardner 2005, p. 170.
^ Ward-Perkins 1956.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Rasch 1985, p. 117.
^ Lechtman & Hobbs 1986.
^ Mark & Hutchinson 1986, p. 24.
^ Heinle & Schlaich 1996, p. 27.
^ Henig, 28
^ Henig, 32
^ Favro, (ii) Materials and construction techniques
^ Henig, 22; Favro, (ii) Materials and construction techniques, which lists major quarries
^ Juracek 1996, p. 310.
^ Peet 1911, p. 35–36.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Walters & Birch 1905, p. 330–40.
^ Morris 1972, pp. 39-41, 51-60.
^ Kolb 1984, pp. 169-238.
^ Benevolo 1993, pp. 256-267.
^ Harris 1989, pp. 375–392: « The Etruscans were, in their turn, probably also influenced in this respect by Greek and Hellenic culture. »
^ Vitrivius 1914.
^ Demandt 1998: « In fact, many sites where the Romans created towns, such as Paris, Vienna and Bratislava, had previously been Celtic settlements of more or less urban character. »
^ Henig, 26. Blagg also mentions baths, granaries, insulae and large villas.
^ Bomgardner 2000, p. 37.
^ Bomgardner 2000, p. 59.
^ Bomgardner 2000, p. 62.
^ Bomgardner 2000, p. 201–223.
^ Abbott & Johnson 1926, p. 12.
^ « A Page from Latin Notes Supplement XV, Entitled SOME STORIES ABOUT THE ROMAN FORUM ». Latin Notes. 3 (6). 1926. JSTOR 43943460.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Dennison, Walter (June 1908). « The Roman Forum as Cicero Saw It ». The Classical Journal. 3 (8): 318–326. JSTOR 3287491.
^ Richardson 1992, p. 193.
^ Lampe 2006, p. 61.
^ Potter & Mattingly 1999, p. 180.
^ Patrich 1996, p. 149.
^ Métreaux 1998, p. 14-15.
^ Pliny, Epist. VIII.18
^ Seneca, Epist. 45
^ Schmitz 1875, p. 618.
^ Kaufman, David (2 December 1929). « Horrea Romana: Roman Storehouses ». The John’s Hopkin’s University Press. 7 (7): 49–54. doi:10.2307/4389377. JSTOR 4389377.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Kaufman, David (2 December 1929). « Horrea Romana: Roman Storehouses ». The John’s Hopkin’s University Press. no. 7 (7): 49. doi:10.2307/4389377. JSTOR 4389377.
^ EERA, 134
^ Hermansen 1970.
^ Storey 2002.
^ Storey 2004.
^ Wheeler, 89
^ Fowler, W. Warde (1899). Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press. pp. 202–204.
^ Summerson, 8-13
^ Wilson Jones 2000.
^ Ros 1996.
^ Ward-Perkins 2000, p. 333.
^ La Villa Romana dell’Auditorium
^ Wikander 2000a, pp. 396f..
^ Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 11.
^ Wilson 2002, pp. 7f..
^ Wikander 2000a, pp. 373–378.
^ Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, pp. 12–15.
^ Wikander 1985, p. 158.
^ Wikander 2000b, p. 403.
^ Wilson 2002, p. 16.
^ Wikander 2000b, p. 407.
^ Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007.
^ Wikander 2000b, pp. 406f..
^ Michael D. Gunther. « Glossary and Index of (mostly) Asian Art ». Old Stones: The Monuments of Art History. Archived from the original on 5 April 2007. Retrieved 24 September2014.^{[self-published source]}
^ Wirsching 2000.
^ Coulton 1974, pp. 7, 16.
^ Lancaster 1999, pp. 419–439.
^ Baker & Baker 2001, p. 69.
^ « Museo del Sannio ». Retrieved 4 October 2014.
^ « Three Obelisks in Benevento ». Retrieved 4 October 2014.
^ Semple 1929, pp. 435.
^ Semple 1929, pp. 436.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Zaho 2004, p. 18–25.
^ Sullivan 2006, p. 133–134.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Fürst & Grundmann 1998, p. 43.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Triumphal Arch at Encyclopædia Britannica
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c F. B. Sear and Richard John. « Triumphal arch. » Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. 30 Jul. 2010
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Honour & Fleming 2005.
^ Forbes 1993, p. 146.
^ Kaszynski 2000, p. 9.
^ Bunson 2009, p. 195.
^ O’Flaherty 2002, p. 2.
^ Gagarin & Fantham 2010, p. 145.
^ O’Connor 1993, p. 1.
^ Beall, Christine (1988). « Designing the segmental arch » (PDF). ebuild.com. Retrieved 8 May 2010.^{[permanent dead link]}
^ O’Connor 1993, p. 126.
^ Döring 2002, pp. 310–319.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Hodge 1992, p. 87.
^ Schnitter 1978, p. 28, fig. 7.
^ Hodge 1992, p. 80.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Hodge 2000, p. 332.
^ Smith 1970, pp. 60f..
^ Hodge 2000, pp. 331f..
^ Hodge 1992, pp. 86f..
^ Smith 1971, p. 49.
^ Smith 1971, p. 42.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b James & Chanson 2002.
^ Smith 1971, pp. 33–35.
^ Schnitter 1978, pp. 31f..
^ Schnitter 1987a, p. 12.
^ Schnitter 1987c, p. 80.
^ Hodge 2000, p. 332, fn. 2.
^ Schnitter 1987b, pp. 59–62.
^ Schnitter 1978, p. 29.
^ Schnitter 1987b, pp. 60, table 1, 62.
^ Arenillas & Castillo 2003.
^ Fields, Nic; Peter Dennis The Walls of Rome Osprey Publishing; 10 Mar 2008 ISBN 978-1-84603-198-4 p.10 [1]
^ Smith 1983, pp. 116–119.
^ Smith 1983, pp. 121–123.
^ Miller 1972.
^ Hodge 1960, p. 38–44.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Ulrich 2007, pp. 148f.
^ Beckmann 2002.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Beckmann 2002, p. 353–356.

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Giacobbe Giusti, Mycènes

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 14 novembre 2018

Publié dans: ↑ a et b Pausanias, Description de la Grèce [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne [archive]], II, 16. ↑ De μὐκης / múkês, le champignon, puis toute excroissance en forme de c, Giacobbe Giusti, Mycènes, Mycènes (en grec ancien Μυκῆναι / Mukễnai) est une cité antique préhellénique située sur une colline au nord-est de la plaine d'Argos, dans le Péloponnèse, et entourée de murs , S. E. Iakovidis, Guide des musées et des sites archéologiques d'Argolide, Ekdotike Athenon,, Senza categoria. Tagué : 120. ↑ Pausanias, 1447 p. (ISBN 978-2-25203-277-0) à l'article Μυκῆναι. ↑ Homère, 16, 16. ↑ De μὐκης / múkês, 180 et XI, 1990, 1993(ISBN 0-521-28173-3), 1995 (ISBN 2-02-013127-7), 1999 (édition mise à jour), 2006. ↑ S. E. Iakovidis, 305 ; voir aussi Iliade, 4, 46. ↑ (en) Bryan Hainsworth (éd.), 46. ↑ Le terme est forgé par Heinrich Schliemann, 51-52. ↑ « πολυχρὐσοιο », 569 de l'Iliade, 569-576. ↑ Iliade, Armand Colin, art, ↑ a et b Pausanias, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, cf. Pierre Chantraine, citant le Catalogue des femmes. ↑ Pausanias, coll. « Points Histoire / Nouvelle histoire de l’Antiquité », commentaire du vers II, commentaire du vers XI, dans le Péloponnèse, découvreur de Mycènes. Claude Mossé et Annie Schnapp-Gourbeillon, des origines à la fin du VIe siècle, Description de la Grèce [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne [archive]], Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque, Effondrement. Comment les sociétés décident de leur disparition ou de leur survie., Ekdotike Athenon, et entourée de murs cyclopéens, Gallimard, giacobbe giusti, Guide des musées et des sites archéologiques d'Argolide, ii, iii, Iliade [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne [archive]], iv, Klincksieck, La Grèce préclassique, la scholie au vers 1239 de l’Oreste d'Euripide et Étienne de Byzance à l'article Μυκῆναι. ↑ Homère, le champignon, Mycènes, Mycènes (en grec ancien Μυκῆναι / Mukễnai) est une cité antique préhellénique située sur une colline au nord-est de la plaine d'Argos, Odyssée, Odyssée [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne [archive]], p. 21-53 ↑ actuellement au British Museum : Treasury of Atreus [archive] Certains passages de cet article ont été traduits ou adaptés de l'article en allemand « Mykene, p. 40. ↑ a et b Jean-Claude Poursat, p. 41. ↑ Poursat, p. 45. ↑ Mossé et Schnapp-Gourbeillon, p. 47. ↑ Mossé et Schnapp-Gourbeillon, p. 61. ↑ Jared Diamond, paris, Précis d'histoire grecque, puis toute excroissance en forme de champignon. Cette étymologie populaire ne repose sur rien, qui met en doute la tradition. Voir aussi Eustathe de Thessalonique, S. E. Iakovidis, Seuil, The Iliad: a Commentary, VII, vol. III : Chants IX-XII. Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Mycènes

Sites archéologiques de Mycènes et de Tirynthe * Patrimoine mondial de l’UNESCO Giacobbe Giusti, Mycènes
La porte des Lionnes à Mycènes.
Coordonnées	37° 43′ 51″ nord, 22° 45′ 22″ est
Pays	Grèce
Subdivision	Péloponnèse, Argolide
Type	Culturel
Critères	(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (vi) [archive]
Numéro d’identification	941 [archive]
Zone géographique	Europe et Amérique du Nord **
Année d’inscription	1999 (23^e session)
* Descriptif officiel UNESCO ** Classification géographique UNESCO

Mycènes

(Voir la carte topographique)

Localisation de Mycènes en Grèce.

Mycènes (en grec ancien Μυκῆναι / Mukễnai) est une cité antique préhellénique située sur une colline au nord-est de la plaine d’Argos, dans le Péloponnèse, et entourée de murs cyclopéens (assemblage de blocs énormes).

Mythe

Selon la mythologie grecque, Mycènes est fondée par Persée à la suite de l’homicide accidentel d’Acrisios, roi d’Argos¹. Alors que la ville lui revient légitimement, Persée préfère céder cette royauté à Mégapenthès, neveu du défunt, et part fonder une nouvelle ville, qu’il baptise « Mycènes » soit en allusion au pommeau de son épée, soit en allusion au champignon qu’il trouve sur place¹^,². Des traditions concurrentes évoquent une Mycène³, fille d’Inachos⁴ ou encore un Mycénée, petit-fils de Phoronée⁵.

Mycènes est le royaume du héros homérique Agamemnon, chef des Achéens lors de la guerre de Troie⁶. Homère la décrit comme chère à Héra⁷ et « riche en or »⁸. La richesse de la ville est en effet proverbiale dès l’Antiquité⁹.

Histoire

Giacobbe Giusti, Mycènes

Vue d’ensemble de la cité

Giacobbe Giusti, Mycènes

Une tablette en langue mycénienne(linéaire B), avec figure masculine gravée au revers.

Mycènes donne son nom à la civilisation mycénienne¹⁰, qui se développe à partir de 1700 av. J.-C. en Grèce continentale. Ainsi, on a retrouvé des vases en céramique et en métal précieux, des perles d’ambre et un masque funéraire en électrum dans le cercle B des tombes à fosse situées près de l’acropole, daté de 1650-1600 av. J.-C.¹¹. Il témoigne de la transition entre les premières tombes, au matériel relativement modeste, et le cercle A (1600-1500 av. J.-C.), qui a livré une impressionnante quantité d’or et d’objets précieux¹².

L’habitat de l’époque n’ayant pas été préservé, l’origine d’une telle affluence de richesses ne peut faire l’objet que de conjectures. Sir Arthur John Evans, découvreur de Cnossos, évoque l’installation d’une dynastie crétoise à Mycènes ; on a suggéré, à l’inverse, un pillage mycénien en Crète ou le retour de mercenaires partis combattre les pharaons Hyksôs en Égypte¹¹. Il semble que la richesse des Mycéniens de l’époque soit endogène, et non due à l’extérieur, et qu’elle se soit constituée progressivement, et non à la suite d’un événement particulier.

Le matériel et l’iconographie des tombes montrent que Mycènes est alors dominée par une aristocratie guerrière, dont les représentants affichent une taille et une force physique supérieures à la moyenne, sans doute grâce à une meilleure alimentation¹³. Elle se distingue par son goût pour les objets de luxe et par l’importance accordée aux monuments funéraires : la tombe à tholos dite « d’Égisthe » a nécessité l’équivalent du travail de 20 hommes pendant 240 jours, puis une phase de maçonnerie d’une année entière¹⁴.

La cité est gouvernée par un monarque appelé « wa-na-ka » dans la langue mycénienne des tablettes en linéaire B, correspondant au mot (ϝ)άναξ / (w)ánax (« roi ») de la langue homérique.

La disparition de cette civilisation n’est pas expliquée précisément. Les causes sont à la fois externes (tremblements de terre à l’origine du déplacement de sources d’eau, raids de nouvelles populations) et internes (administration trop centralisée et trop rigide, incapable de surmonter de nouvelles crises). L’hypothèse de la cause interne est renforcée par le fait que, dans les tablettes mycéniennes, le nom du magistrat chargé de l’administration des villages est une forme ancienne dont aurait pu dériver le titre d’archonte (roi-prêtre de la Grèce archaïque). Ce qui signifierait que l’administration mycénienne se désintégra au point que les citoyens ne reconnurent plus que les magistrats locaux comme autorité suprême. Selon la théorie de Jared Diamond, l’exploitation sans vergogne des ressources naturelles aurait pu être à l’origine de la chute de la Grèce mycénienne¹⁵.

Ces ruines considérables furent visitées par Pausanias, au ii^e siècle, qui commente les tombeaux, les remparts massifs et la porte des Lionnes, encore visibles aujourd’hui. Toute connaissance sur ceux qui avaient construit cette remarquable cité avait disparu bien avant l’époque classique, et les Mycéniens ne furent connus des Grecs que de la manière la plus vague, à travers mythes et légendes.

Fouilles archéologiques

La cité de Mycènes est connue depuis l’expédition française de 1822, mais c’est à l’archéologue allemand Heinrich Schliemann que l’on doit les premières connaissances précises de la citadelle et des tombes, fouillées à partir de 1876. De nombreuses campagnes archéologiques ont été menées depuis lors.

Après Schliemann, d’autres découvertes ont révélé que Mycènes était habitée dès le troisième millénaire par une population préhellénique proche de celle de la Crète minoenne contemporaine. Une vaste ville s’étendait au pied de la citadelle, mais elle n’a été que très peu explorée.

Giacobbe Giusti, Mycènes

Wilhelm Dörpfeld (en haut, à gauche) et Heinrich Schliemann (en haut, à droite), à la porte des Lionnes, vers 1885.
Masque d’or dit « d’Agamemnon », (xvi^e siècle av. J.-C., cercle A des tombes).

Giacobbe Giusti, Mycènes
Balances d’or, xvi^e siècle av. J.-C., pour la pesée des âmes, figurées par des rosaces ou des papillons.

Giacobbe Giusti, Mycènes
Glaives de bronze incrustés d’or.

Giacobbe Giusti, Mycènes

Glaives de bronze incrustés d’or.

La citadelle

Les vestiges de la citadelle de Mycènes ont été entièrement fouillés, et on peut voir aujourd’hui le palais mycénien entouré de son enceinte cyclopéenne et d’un grand nombre de tombes à fosse ou à coupole.

La porte des Lions et l’enceinte cyclopéenne

Bas-relief de la porte des Lions

Poterne nord

L’enceinte cyclopéenne est percée de deux accès, tout comme à Tirynthe. La porte des Lions constitue l’entrée principale : elle est formée d’un trilithe au linteau énorme surmonté d’un triangle de décharge à encorbellement obturé par une plaque sculptée représentant deux lionnes dressées de part et d’autre d’une colonne à chapiteau. L’ensemble est datable de -1250. Une seconde porte ou « poterne » s’ouvre au nord de l’enceinte, elle aussi constituée d’un trilithe, mais plus petite et sans décor sculpté.

Le mur a été construit en trois phases : la première date d’environ -1350. Puis au milieu du xiii^e siècle av. J.-C., la défense est étendue vers le sud et l’ouest. Vers -1200 se situe le renforcement et l’extension de la citerne et des entrepôts.

Le palais royal

Le palais royal, accessible par un chemin très raide, est situé au point le plus élevé de la citadelle. Il en reste peu de vestiges, car il a été détruit dans un incendie et presque entièrement modifié. Le palais royal s’élève en terrasse au cœur de l’enceinte, selon un plan tripartite composé de trois pièces successives, deux vestibules, et d’un mégaron, qui caractérise les palais mycéniens. Cette grande salle presque carrée d’environ 120 mètres carrés, (plus vaste que celle de Pylos) est éclairée par un lanterneau soutenu par quatre colonnes. Elle possède un toit à double pente qui abrite un foyer central fixe et circulaire ainsi qu’un trône. Le palais royal domine d’autres édifices de dimension un peu plus modeste : grandes maisons dont la longueur pouvait atteindre 35 mètres que l’on retrouve des deux côtés du rempart, ainsi que des unités ordinaires d’habitation à l’architecture inchangée au cours des siècles.

Les cercles de tombes

Giacobbe Giusti, Mycènes

Cercle A des tombes

De nombreuses sépultures royales ont été découvertes à l’intérieur de deux cercles situés dans l’acropole. Les deux grands cercles A et B, situés à l’Ouest de la cité, renferment de nombreuses tombes à fosse surmontées d’une dalle ou d’une stèle sculptée en bas-relief ou en méplat et qui recèlent un matériel funéraire extrêmement riche composé de figurines de terre cuite, céramique, masques, vases et bijoux en or. Les masques mycéniens, dont le fameux masque d’Agamemnon, étaient destinés à conserver dans un moulage en feuille d’or, les traits et le souvenir des grands morts héroïsés. Cinq de ces tombes ont livré 17 os de membres inférieurs, essentiellement masculins.

Le cercle A, découvert par Schliemann, s’étend à l’intérieur de l’enceinte. Le cercle B, plus ancien, n’a été dégagé qu’après 1950 : on y a trouvé des tombes encore plus anciennes que celles du cercle A, remontant, pour certaines d’entre elles, au xvii^e ou xvi^e siècle av. J.-C., c’est-à-dire au tout début de la civilisation mycénienne.

La tombe V du cercle A :

La tombe la plus célèbre est la tombe V du cercle A. L’un des hommes avait le visage recouvert du « masque d’Agamemnon ». C’est une feuille d’or travaillée au repoussé et par incision. Les yeux sont fermés et traités en grain de café, les oreilles sont stylisées et traitées en double-volutes, tandis que la moustache et la barbe, encadrant une bouche rectiligne, sont incisées avec précision. Un pectoral, en forme de trapèze marqué par deux cercles pointés figurant les aréoles mammaires, recouvrait la poitrine. Un motif de spirales enchaînées emprunté à l’art cyclado-minoen marque le pectoral. Le matériau, pérenne, a la volonté de protéger en même temps la dépouille du défunt. L’art cyclado-minoen se retrouve également sur un vase de la tombe. À la période où la civilisation mycénienne émerge en tant que puissance locale, les mœurs de ses populations sont assez rustiques et influencées tant par l’Orient que par Cnossos.

Les tombes à coupole

On a découvert à l’extérieur de l’enceinte neuf grandes tombes monumentales à coupole, dites « tombes à tholos » en forme de ruche, construites selon la technique de l’encorbellement. Il leur a été donné des noms de fantaisie évoquant les héros homériques : trésors d’Atrée, d’Agamemnon, de Clytemnestre, d’Égisthe, etc.

Ces tombes, précédées d’un long corridor à ciel ouvert (dromos), étaient accessibles par une porte monumentale.

Celle de la tombe dite « Trésor d’Atrée », accessible par un corridor (dromos) de 36 m de long et de 6 m de large, est surmontée d’un énorme linteau, mesurant 9,50 × 1,20 m et pesant 120 t¹⁶, constitué de deux blocs. Il était déchargé par un triangle en encorbellement, obturé par une plaque décorée¹⁷, analogue au dispositif encore en place sur la porte des Lionnes. La coupole de la chambre funéraire s’élève à 14 m.

« Trésor d’Atrée » : tombe à coupole
Coupole en rucher de la tombe dite de Clytemnestre

Musée

Un musée a ouvert ses portes à proximité en 2007.

Musée archéologique de Mycènes

Notes et références

↑ ^a et b Pausanias, Description de la Grèce [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne [archive]], II, 16.
↑ De μὐκης / múkês, le champignon, puis toute excroissance en forme de champignon. Cette étymologie populaire ne repose sur rien, cf. Pierre Chantraine, Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque, Paris, Klincksieck, 1999 (édition mise à jour), 1447 p. (ISBN 978-2-25203-277-0) à l’article Μυκῆναι.
↑ Homère, Odyssée [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne [archive]], II, 120.
↑ Pausanias, Description de la Grèce [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne [archive]], II, 16, 4, citant le Catalogue des femmes.
↑ Pausanias, II, 16, 4, qui met en doute la tradition. Voir aussi Eustathe de Thessalonique, commentaire du vers II, 569 de l’Iliade, la scholie au vers 1239 de l’Oreste d’Euripide et Étienne de Byzance à l’article Μυκῆναι.
↑ Homère, Iliade [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne [archive]], 569-576.
↑ Iliade, IV, 51-52.
↑ « πολυχρὐσοιο », Odyssée, III, 305 ; voir aussi Iliade, VII, 180 et XI, 46.
↑ (en) Bryan Hainsworth (éd.), The Iliad: a Commentary, vol. III : Chants IX-XII, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993(ISBN 0-521-28173-3), commentaire du vers XI, 46.
↑ Le terme est forgé par Heinrich Schliemann, découvreur de Mycènes. Claude Mossé et Annie Schnapp-Gourbeillon, Précis d’histoire grecque, Armand Colin, 1990, p. 40.
↑ ^a et b Jean-Claude Poursat, La Grèce préclassique, des origines à la fin du VI^e siècle, Paris, Seuil, coll. « Points Histoire / Nouvelle histoire de l’Antiquité », 1995 (ISBN 2-02-013127-7), p. 45.
↑ Mossé et Schnapp-Gourbeillon, p. 41.
↑ Poursat, p. 47.
↑ Mossé et Schnapp-Gourbeillon, p. 61.
↑ Jared Diamond, Effondrement. Comment les sociétés décident de leur disparition ou de leur survie., Gallimard, 2006.
↑ S. E. Iakovidis, Guide des musées et des sites archéologiques d’Argolide, p. 21-53
↑ actuellement au British Museum : Treasury of Atreus [archive]

Certains passages de cet article ont été traduits ou adaptés de l’article en allemand « Mykene ».

Mycènes, sur Wikimedia Commons

Bibliographie

(fr) S. E. Iakovidis, Guide des musées et des sites archéologiques d’Argolide, Ekdotike Athenon, 1978, p. 21-53

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myc%C3%A8nes

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Pons Fabricius or Ponte dei Quattro Capi

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 26 octobre 2018

Publié dans: Bridges in Rome Roman bridges in Italy Deck arch bridges Stone bridges in Italy Bridges completed in the 1st century BC Rome R. XII Ripa, Giacobbe Giusti, Pons Fabricius or Ponte dei Quattro Capi, Giacobbe Giusti, Pons Fabricius Ponte dei Quattro Capi, L . FABRICIVS . C . F . CVR . VIAR | FACIVNDVM . COERAVIT | IDEMQVE | PROBAVIT ("Lucius Fabricius, son of Gaius, superintendent of the roads, took care and likewise approved that it be built, O’Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, p. 66, Pons Fabricius or Ponte dei Quattro Capi, Rabun M. Taylor (2000). Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome. L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER. pp. 141–. ISBN 978-88-8265-100, Senza categoria. Tagué : Amanda (1998). Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, art, Bridges in Rome Roman bridges in Italy Deck arch bridges Stone bridges in Italy Bridges completed in the 1st century BC Rome R. XII Ripa, Cambridge University Press, Colin (1993), giacobbe giusti, L . FABRICIVS . C . F . CVR . VIAR | FACIVNDVM . COERAVIT | IDEMQVE | PROBAVIT ("Lucius Fabricius, LacusCurtius: Pons Fabricius Pons Fabricius at Structurae The Waters of Rome: Tiber River Bridges and the Development of the Ancient City of Rome Tiber Island information (in Italian) Ponte Fabrici, O’Connor, Pons Fabricius or Ponte dei Quattro Capi, Rabun M. Taylor (2000). Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, Roman Bridges, son of Gaius, superintendent of the roads, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome. L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER. pp. 141–. ISBN 978-88-8265-100-8. Jump up^ Claridge, took care and likewise approved that it be built. Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Pons Fabricius or Ponte dei Quattro Capi

L’un des Hermès quadrifrons.

Pons Fabricius Ponte Fabricio Ponte dei Quattro Capi Giacobbe Giusti, Pons Fabricius or Ponte dei Quattro Capi
Pons Fabricius
Coordinates	41°53′28″N 12°28′42″ECoordinates: 41°53′28″N 12°28′42″E
Carries	Connection Campus Martius–Tiber Island
Crosses	Tiber
Locale	Rome, Italy
Characteristics
Design	Arch bridge
Total length	62 m (203 ft)
Width	5.5 m (18 ft)
Height	55.5 feet
Longest span	24.5 m (80 ft)
No. of spans	2
History
Designer	Lucius Fabricius
Construction end	62 BC

Giacobbe Giusti, Pons Fabricius or Ponte dei Quattro Capi

Pons Fabricius as it appears in a Piranesi engraving of 1756

Pons Fabricius and Tiber island as seen from the Tiber river walkway

The Pons Fabricius(Italian: Ponte Fabricio, meaning « Fabricius’ Bridge ») or Ponte dei Quattro Capi, is the oldest Roman bridge in Rome, Italy, still existing in its original state.^[1]Built in 62 BC, it spans half of the Tiber River, from the Campus Martius on the east side to Tiber Island in the middle (the Pons Cestius is west of the island). Quattro Capi(« four heads ») refers to the two marble pillars of the two-faced Janus herms on the parapet, which were moved here from the nearby Church of St Gregory (Monte Savello) in the 14th century.^[2]

Bridge

According to Dio Cassius, the bridge was built in 62 BC, the year after Cicero was consul, to replace an earlier wooden bridge destroyed by fire. It was commissioned by Lucius Fabricius, the curator of the roads and a member of the gens Fabricia of Rome. Completely intact from Roman antiquity, it has been in continuous use ever since.

The Pons Fabricius has a length of 62 m, and is 5.5 m wide. It is constructed from two wide arches, supported by a central pillar in the middle of the stream. Its core is constructed of tuff. Its outer facing today is made of bricks and travertine.

Inscription

CIL VI, 1305, the inscription on the bridge

An original inscription on the travertine commemorates its builder in Latin: L . FABRICIVS . C . F . CVR . VIAR | FACIVNDVM . COERAVIT | IDEMQVE | PROBAVIT (« Lucius Fabricius, son of Gaius, superintendent of the roads, took care and likewise approved that it be built »). It is repeated four times, once on each side of each arch.

A later inscription, in smaller lettering, records that the bridge was restored under Pope Innocent XI, probably in 1679.

References

Jump up^ Rabun M. Taylor (2000). Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome. L’ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER. pp. 141–. ISBN 978-88-8265-100-8.
Jump up^ Claridge, Amanda (1998). Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press

Sources

O’Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, p. 66, ISBN 0-521-39326-4

Pons Fabricius at Wikimedia Commons

LacusCurtius: Pons Fabricius
Pons Fabricius at Structurae
The Waters of Rome: Tiber River Bridges and the Development of the Ancient City of Rome
Tiber Island information (in Italian)
Ponte Fabricio (in Italian)

hide v t e Ancient bridges on the Tiber (from source to mouth)
Upstream Milvius (Molle) Ælius (Sant’Angelo) Neronianus^† Agrippae(Sisto) Aurelius^† After Tiber Island Fabricius Cestius Æmilius (Rotto)^† Sublicius^† Probi^†
† partly or wholly underwater or demolished Names are in the original Latin; in parentheses are the Italian names that differ significantly

Categories:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pons_Fabricius

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Giacobbe Giusti, Iron Gates Mesolithic

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 12 octobre 2018

Publié dans: Geoff Bailey & Penny Spikins, Mesolithic Europe, Cambridge University Press, 2008. Hristivoje Pavlović, "Tajne Lepenskog Vira I - Prvi grad u Evropi", Politika (in Serbian), 20 August 2017 Hri, Giacobbe Giusti, Iron Gates Mesolithic, Iron Gates Mesolithic, Iron Gates Mesolithic is a Mesolithicarchaeological culture, dating to between 11,000 and 3,500 years BCE, in the Iron Gatesregion of the Danube River, in modern Romania and Serbia., Mesolithic cultures of Europe Archaeological cultures in Serbia Archaeological cultures in Romania European archaeology stubs Romania stubs Serbia stubs, Senza categoria. Tagué : "Lepenski Vir – Schela Cladovei culture’s chronology and its interpretation", "Tajne Lepenskog Vira I - Prvi grad u Evropi", "Tajne Lepenskog Vira IV - Zapanjujuća veština obrade kamena", 000 and 3, 1996. Aurelian I. Rusu, 20 August 2017 Hristivoje Pavlović, 2008. Hristivoje Pavlović, 500 years BCE, Acta Musei, art, Cambridge University Press, dating to between 11, Geoff Bailey & Penny Spikins, giacobbe giusti, in modern Romania and Serbia., in the Iron Gatesregion of the Danube River, International Monographs in Prehistory, Iron Gates Mesolithic, Iron Gates Mesolithic is a Mesolithicarchaeological culture, Mesolithic cultures of Europe Archaeological cultures in Serbia Archaeological cultures in Romania European archaeology stubs Romania stubs Serbia stubs, Mesolithic Europe, Politika (in Serbian), Politika (in Serbian) 23 August 2017. Ivana Radovanović, The Iron Gates Mesolithic Ann Arbor. Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Iron Gates Mesolithic

Alternative names	Iron Gates culture Lepenski Vir culture
Geographical range	Iron Gates, Danube Valley
Period	Mesolithic
Dates	11,000–3500 BCE
Type site	Lepenski Vir
Preceded by	Epigravettian
Followed by	First Temperate Neolithic

The Iron Gates Mesolithic is a Mesolithic archaeological culture, dating to between 11,000 and 3,500 years BCE, in the Iron Gatesregion of the Danube River, in modern Romania and Serbia.

Major sites within this archaeological complex include Lepenski Vir. Stages at this site dated at c. 6300–6000 BCE have been described as « the first city in Europe »,^[1] due to its permanency, organisation, as well as the sophistication of its architecture and construction techniques.^[2]^[3]Lepenski Vir consists of one large settlement with around 10 satellite villages. Numerous piscine sculptures and peculiar architecture have been found at the site.

Giacobbe Giusti, Iron Gates Mesolithic

A red sandstone bust sculpture, found at the Iron Gates site of Lepenski Vir.

Footnotes

Jump up^ Pavlović, 20 August 2017, p. 20.
Jump up^ Pavlović, 23 August 2017.
Jump up^ Rusu, 2011.

Bibliography

Geoff Bailey & Penny Spikins, Mesolithic Europe, Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Hristivoje Pavlović, « Tajne Lepenskog Vira I – Prvi grad u Evropi », Politika (in Serbian), 20 August 2017
Hristivoje Pavlović, « Tajne Lepenskog Vira IV – Zapanjujuća veština obrade kamena », Politika (in Serbian) 23 August 2017.
Ivana Radovanović, The Iron Gates Mesolithic Ann Arbor, International Monographs in Prehistory, 1996.
Aurelian I. Rusu, « Lepenski Vir – Schela Cladovei culture’s chronology and its interpretation », Acta Musei, VI. 1, 2011.

This article relating to archaeology in Europe is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

This Romania-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

This Serbia-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Categories:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Gates_Mesolithic

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Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA MANTEGNA: St. Sebastian (detail), Andrea Mantegna, 1480, Musée du Louvre, Paris

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 15 septembre 2018

Publié dans: ANDREA MANTEGNA: St. Sebastian (detail), Andrea Mantegna, 1480, Musée du Louvre, Paris, Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA MANTEGNA: St. Sebastian (detail), Andrea Mantegna, 1480, Musée du Louvre, Paris, Senza categoria. Tagué : "Reliquary of St Sebastian". Metalwork. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2007-08-17. "Iacobus de Voragine: Historia de Sancto Sebastiano". Retrieved 2016-06-03. "hericius definition | Latin Dicti, 1021–581221; abbreviated in Jacob de Voragine, 117 Zwingenberger, 1480, 1600–1800, 1901), 1907, 1976)". Retrieved 2016-09-21. "Damien Hirst". MCA Denver. Archived from the original on 2010-04-23.. Buchanan, 1995), 2005. "Vincoli". IT: Unica. Archived from the original (JPEG) on 2006-03-10.. "Catholic Encyclopedia". 1908.. Barker, 2007, 94–95 Barker, 96–97 Boeckl, Alban. Lives of the Fathers, and Dogmatic (Chatto and Windus, andrea mantegna, ANDREA MANTEGNA: St. Sebastian (detail), Cambridge University Press, ch. 4 (pp. 114–7 especially) in Piety and Plague: from Byzantium to the Baroque, chap. 2, Christine M (2000). Images of Plague and Pestilence: Iconography and Iconology. Truman State University. pp. 76–80. ISBN 978-0-943549-85-9.. Barker, David (2002). R.E.M.: Fiction: An Alternative Biography. Virgin. pp. 206–07. ISBN 978-1-85227-927-1. notasfarwest (2015-09-07), Dutch Painting, Ebenezer Cobham. A Dictionary of Miracles: Imitative, Ed. Franco Mormando, giacobbe giusti, Google books. Boeckl, homo-erotic icon?". UK: The Independent. 10 February 2008.. Fr. Paolo O. Pirlo, in J.-P. Migne, ISBN 0300074514, ISBN 1-931112-73-8, ISBN 978-1-931112-73-4, Jackie. "The Patron Saint of Sports". Retrieved 3 December 2017. "About St Sebastian - Associated & Catholic Colleges of WA". www.accsport.asn.au. Retrieved 3 December 2017. "Saint Sebastian Inter, Jeanette (2011). Schiele. New York: Parkstone International. p. 154. ISBN 9781780421957. "Fabiola (1949)". BFI. Retrieved 3 December 2017. "Carrie (1976) - Trivia - IMDb". Retrieved 2016-06-03. "A Bru, K. J. P. Lowe: Black Africans in Renaissance Europe, Legenda Aurea. Brewer, Louvre Museum, Martyrs and Other Principal Saints, Matthew. "Losing My Religion". Music Videos Love Movies. Retrieved 3 December 2017. Buckley, musee du louvre, New York: McClure Publ., p. 191, p. 77 Slive, p.11. Butler, p.22 Barker, paris, Patrologiae Cursus Completus Accurante (Paris 1845), pp. 46–8; chap. 3, pp. 81–3. Sebastian Tales, Realistic, References "How did St Sebastian become an enduring, Reminiscences (3 vols.), retrieved 2017-06-25 "Merħba - Parroċċa San Sebastjan". Parroċċa San Sebastjan. Retrieved 3 December 2017. St. Sebastian Society web page: http://urnewman.org/groups/st-sebastian Carl Schurz, Seymour, Sheila, SHMI (1997). "St. Sebastian". My First Book of Saints. Holy Mary Immaculate - Quality Catholic Publications. pp. 22–23. ISBN 971-91595-4-5. "About St Sebastian - Associated & Catholic Colleges o, The Making of a Plague Saint, The Mountain Goats - Hail St. Sebastian, Thomas Worcester Truman State University, vol. I, vol. 1, XVII, Yale UP. Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA MANTEGNA: St. Sebastian (detail), Andrea Mantegna, 1480, Musée du Louvre, Paris

St. Sebastian (detail), Andrea Mantegna, 1480, Musée du Louvre, Paris

Saint Sebastian (died c. AD 288) was an early Christian saint and martyr. According to traditional belief, he was killed during the Roman emperor Diocletian‘s persecution of Christians. He is commonly depicted in art and literature tied to a post or tree and shot with arrows. Despite this being the most common artistic depiction of Sebastian, he was, according to legend, rescued and healed by Irene of Rome. Shortly afterwards he went to Diocletian to warn him about his sins, and as a result was clubbed to death.^[1]^[2] He is venerated in the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church.

The details of Saint Sebastian’s martyrdom were first spoken of by 4th-century bishop Ambrose of Milan (Saint Ambrose), in his sermon (number 22) on Psalm 118. Ambrose stated that Sebastian came from Milan and that he was already venerated there at that time. Saint Sebastian is a popular male saint, especially among athletes.^[3]^[4]^[5]

References

^ Jump up to:^a ^b « How did St Sebastian become an enduring, homo-erotic icon? ». UK: The Independent. 10 February 2008..
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d Fr. Paolo O. Pirlo, SHMI (1997). « St. Sebastian ». My First Book of Saints. Holy Mary Immaculate – Quality Catholic Publications. pp. 22–23. ISBN 971-91595-4-5.
Jump up^ « About St Sebastian – Associated & Catholic Colleges of WA ». http://www.accsport.asn.au. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
Jump up^ White, Jackie. « The Patron Saint of Sports ». Retrieved 3 December2017.
Jump up^ « About St Sebastian – Associated & Catholic Colleges of WA ». http://www.accsport.asn.au. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
Jump up^ « Saint Sebastian Interceding for the Plague Stricken ». The Walters Art Museum.
Jump up^ Acta S. Sebastiani Martyris, in J.-P. Migne, Patrologiae Cursus Completus Accurante (Paris 1845), XVII, 1021–581221; abbreviated in Jacob de Voragine, Legenda Aurea.
Jump up^ Brewer, Ebenezer Cobham. A Dictionary of Miracles: Imitative, Realistic, and Dogmatic (Chatto and Windus, 1901), p.11.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Butler, Alban. Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs and Other Principal Saints, Vol.I},
Jump up^ « Reliquary of St Sebastian ». Metalwork. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
Jump up^ « Iacobus de Voragine: Historia de Sancto Sebastiano ». Retrieved 2016-06-03.
Jump up^ « hericius definition | Latin Dictionary ». Retrieved 2016-06-03.
Jump up^ « echinus definition | Latin Dictionary ». Retrieved 2016-06-03.
Jump up^ « Internet History Sourcebooks: Medieval Sourcebook: The Golden Legend: Volume II: The Life of Sebastian ». Retrieved 2016-06-03.
Jump up^ City of Ebersberg website: Kloster Ebersberg (German)
Jump up^ Thomas Foster Earle, K. J. P. Lowe: Black Africans in Renaissance Europe, p. 191, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Jump up^ « Vincoli ». IT: Unica. Archived from the original (JPEG) on 2006-03-10..
Jump up^ « Catholic Encyclopedia ». 1908..
Jump up^ Barker, 94–95
Jump up^ Barker, 96–97
Jump up^ Boeckl, Christine M (2000). Images of Plague and Pestilence: Iconography and Iconology. Truman State University. pp. 76–80. ISBN 978-0-943549-85-9..
Jump up^ Barker, Sheila, The Making of a Plague Saint, ch. 4 (pp. 114–7 especially) in Piety and Plague: from Byzantium to the Baroque, Ed. Franco Mormando, Thomas Worcester Truman State University, 2007,ISBN 1-931112-73-8, ISBN 978-1-931112-73-4, Google books.
Jump up^ Boeckl, p. 77
Jump up^ Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 1600–1800, Yale UP, 1995, ISBN 0300074514, p.22
Jump up^ Barker, 117
Jump up^ Zwingenberger, Jeanette (2011). Schiele. New York: Parkstone International. p. 154. ISBN 9781780421957.
Jump up^ « Fabiola (1949) ». BFI. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
Jump up^ « Carrie (1976) – Trivia – IMDb ». Retrieved 2016-06-03.
Jump up^ « A Brutal Nobility: Painting Death in The House with Laughing Windows (Pupi Avati, 1976) ». Retrieved 2016-09-21.
Jump up^ « Damien Hirst ». MCA Denver. Archived from the original on 2010-04-23..
Jump up^ Buchanan, Matthew. « Losing My Religion ». Music Videos Love Movies. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
Jump up^ Buckley, David (2002). R.E.M.: Fiction: An Alternative Biography. Virgin. pp. 206–07. ISBN 978-1-85227-927-1.
Jump up^ notasfarwest (2015-09-07), The Mountain Goats – Hail St. Sebastian, retrieved 2017-06-25
Jump up^ « Merħba – Parroċċa San Sebastjan ». Parroċċa San Sebastjan. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
Jump up^ St. Sebastian Society web page: http://urnewman.org/groups/st-sebastian
Jump up^ Carl Schurz, Reminiscences (3 vols.), New York: McClure Publ., 1907, vol. 1, chap. 2, pp. 46–8; chap. 3, pp. 81–3.
Jump up^ Sebastian Tales

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Sebastian

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 31 août 2018

Publié dans: Champ de Mars (Rome), Champ de Mars (en latin : Campus Martius, en italien : Campo Marzio) est une vaste plaine de près de deux kilomètres carrés située au nord-ouest du centre historique de Rome, sur la rive gauc, Francesco Piranesi, Il Camp Marzio dell'antica Roma, gravures d'après les dessins de Giovanni Battista Piranesi, 1800. (en) Samuel Ball Platner et Thomas Ashby, A topographical dictionary of A, Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome), Senza categoria, Tibre Navalia Circus Flaminius Théâtre de Marcellus T. de Diane T. de la Piété T. de Janus T. de Junon T. de Spes Temple de Bellone Temple d'Apollon Sosianus Temple de Jupiter Stator T. Tagué : 1800. (en) Samuel Ball Platner et Thomas Ashby, 1929, 1971, 1992, 2001 (en) Filippo Coarelli, 2005, 2007, 2014 (en) Paul W. Jacobs et Diane Atnally Conlin, 2015, 287 p. (en) Roger B. Ulrich (dir.) et Caroline K. Quenemoen (dir.), 488 p.(ISBN0801843006) Luc Duret et Jean-Paul Néraudau, 555 p.(ISBN978-0-520-07961-8) (en) John W. Stamper, 608 p. Léon Homo, 665 p. (en) Lawrence Richardson, A Companion to Roman Architecture, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, A topographical dictionary of Ancient Rome, Albin Michel, “Campus Martius : the Field of Mars in the life of ancient Rome”, Blackwell Publishing, Cambridge University Press, Champ de Mars (en latin : Campus Martius, Champ de Mars (Rome), coll. « Blackwell companions to the Ancient World », coll. « L'évolution de l'humanité », coll. « Realia », en italien : Campo Marzio) est une vaste plaine de près de deux kilomètres carrés située au nord-ouest du centre historique de Rome, et constituant un domaine public de la Rome antique, Francesco Piranesi, giacobbe giusti, gravures d'après les dessins de Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Il Camp Marzio dell'antica Roma, Johns Hopkins University Press, Les Belles Lettres, londres, Oxford University Press, Rome and environs : an archaeological guide, Rome impériale et l'urbanisme dans l'antiquité, sur la rive gauche du Tibre, The architecture of roman temples : the Republic to the middle Empire, Tibre Navalia Circus Flaminius Théâtre de Marcellus T. de Diane T. de la Piété T. de Janus T. de Junon T. de Spes Temple de Bellone Temple d'Apollon Sosianus Temple de Jupiter Stator T, University of California Press, Urbanisme et métamorphose de la Rome antique. Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

Champ de Mars.

Localisation du Champ de Mars sur une carte topographique simplifiée de la ville de Rome antique avec, à titre indicatif, les empreintes des principaux monuments et les tracés des murs servien et aurélien.

Le Champ de Mars (en latin : Campus Martius, en italien : Campo Marzio) est une vaste plaine de près de deux kilomètres carrés située au nord-ouest du centre historique de Rome, sur la rive gauche du Tibre, et constituant un domaine public de la Rome antique. À l’origine, la région s’étend hors des murs de la ville et c’est donc dans cette région qu’est consacré le premier sanctuaire de Mars de Rome. Au Moyen Âge, le Champ de Mars devient la région la plus peuplée de la ville. Il se situe aujourd’hui en partie dans le rione Campo Marzio R.IV qui, bien que portant le même nom, couvre une zone un peu plus petite.

Topographie

Le Champ de Mars est une plaine inondable située à l’origine à l’extérieur des limites sacrées de la ville de Rome (pomerium) , à l’extérieur du mur servien du début de la République. Ce vaste espace relativement plat et encore peu encombré de construction sous la République est régulièrement inondé par les crues du Tibre¹. Il est encadré à l’ouest par la boucle du Tibre, au sud par le relief du Capitole, à l’est par le Pincio et le Quirinal qui rejoint le Capitole. On peut y accéder au sud depuis le Vélabre par un passage étroit entre les pentes du Capitole et le Tibre et par le nord par un passage entre le fleuve et les pentes du Pincio². La région couvre une zone d’environ 250 hectares s’étendant sur un peu plus de deux kilomètres du Capitole au sud à la Porta Flaminia au nord, et sur un peu moins de deux kilomètres du Tibre à l’est au Quirinal à l’ouest sur sa plus grande largeur. L’altitude antique de la plaine est de 5 à 10 mètres au-dessus du niveau de la mer (3 à 8 mètres par rapport au Tibre), contre 13 à 20 mètres aujourd’hui. Les auteurs antiques relèvent quelques points naturels remarquables comme un bois de chêne au nord de l’Île tibérine (Aesculetum), le Lucus Petelinus et une étendue marécageuse au centre de la région, le Palus Caprae, essentiellement alimentée par le cours d’eau Petronia Amnis qui prend sa source sur le Quirinal (Cati fons)³.

Dès le v^e siècle av. J.-C., la partie sud de la plaine est baptisée Prata Flaminia^{a 1} ou Campus Flaminius^{a 2}, une zone plus tard occupée par le Circus Flaminius qui sert de référence topographique pour localiser les monuments construits aux alentours (in Circo)⁴. Le nom de Campus Martius sert alors à désigner la région qui s’étend plus au nord⁵. Au début du i^er siècle, Augusteentreprend une réorganisation administrative de la ville de Rome qui est découpée en quatorze nouvelles régions. Le Champ de Mars est annexé à la ville à cette occasion, constituant deux régions, la Regio IX à l’ouest et la Regio VII à l’est⁶. Le nom de Campus Martius n’est alors plus utilisé que pour désigner la partie de la Regio IX Circus Flaminius qui s’étend à l’ouest de la Via Flaminia. Cette zone est elle-même découpée en deux parties distinctes dont les limites sont repérées par un cippe^{a 3} : la partie méridionale qui est couverte de monuments et la partie septentrionale où la densité des constructions est plus faible et où il y a encore quelques espaces libres qui constituent sous l’Empire le « Champ de Mars » proprement dit⁷.

Limites de la Regio VII Via Lata.
Limites de la Regio IX Circus Flaminius.

Signification et usage

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

Le Champ de Mars vers 300 ap. J.-C. avec en haut à droite l’Île tibérine, en haut la zone du Circus Flaminius et au centre le théâtre de Pompée(maquette d’Italo Gismondi).

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

La partie sud du Champ de Mars, dite Prata Flaminia ou Campus Flaminius.

Le Campus Martius (littéralement « Champ de Mars ») doit son nom à la présence d’un autel dédié à Mars dès la plus haute antiquité, selon Festus l’autel est mentionné dans une loi de Numa Pompilius, ou plus simplement au fait que cette région est entièrement consacrée à Mars. Durant la royauté romaine, la plaine est utilisée comme pâture pour les moutons et les chevaux, comme zone de culture et comme espace pour l’entrainement athlétique et militaire des jeunes Romains^{a 4}. Selon une version de la tradition antique rapportée par Tite-Live^{a 5}, la région a appartenu aux rois étrusques de la dynastie des Tarquins et c’est seulement après leur expulsion qu’elle est retombée dans le domaine public et a été dédié par la même occasion à Mars. Selon Denys d’Halicarnasse, la consécration de la région à Mars est antérieure aux règnes des Tarquins et leur appropriation du domaine^{a 6}.

Le Champ de Mars demeure un domaine public pendant toute la République et ce n’est qu’au début du i^er siècle av. J.-C. que les premières parcelles sont vendues à des propriétaires privés afin de financer la guerre menée par Sylla contre Mithridate VI⁸. Les habitations privées ne commencent à apparaître que sous l’Empire mais se multiplient rapidement et les Régionnaires donnent pour le iv^e siècle un total de 2 777 insulae et 140 domus pour la Regio IX⁹.

La plupart des évènements qui se déroulent sur le Champ de Mars est étroitement associée à la guerre dont Mars est la divinité principale. C’est en effet dans cette région que le peuple romain en armes se rassemble et que sont célébrés les évènements à caractère militaire. Les troupes y sont entrainées et les généraux victorieux y exposent le butin rapporté des territoires conquis. De manière générale, le Champ de Mars est utilisé pour les évènements qui ne peuvent pas, pour des raisons religieuses, se dérouler dans les limites du pomerium. Les citoyens s’y rassemblent pour voter au sein des comices centuriates et des comices tributes, pour élire les magistrats et lors du census¹⁰^,⁶. C’est dans cette zone que sont reçus les ambassadeurs étrangers qui ne peuvent pas pénétrer dans la ville. C’est également dans un édifice du Champ de Mars que se réunit le Sénat lorsqu’il s’agit de traiter d’affaires liées à la guerre comme décerner un triomphe à un général victorieux et de traiter d’affaires liées à la politique étrangère.

La région tient une place importante dans la religion romaine. Le Champ de Mars abrite principalement des cultes qui sont exclus des limites sacrées de la ville comme les cultes étrangers (celui d’Apollon Medicus par exemple) et les cultes liés aux divinités guerrières et infernales (ceux de Mars, Bellone et Dis Pater par exemple). Aux ides d’octobre (le 15 octobre) s’y déroule la principale fête religieuse célébrée en l’honneur de Mars, October equus. Selon la tradition, cette fête est instaurée durant le vi^e siècle av. J.-C. et est censée protéger les prochaines récoltes et les soldats qui sont revenus à Rome après une campagne militaire. Les festivités comprennent des courses de chars et le sacrifice d’un cheval¹¹.

Monuments

Époque républicaine

Bien que n’étant pas intégré officiellement dans la ville de Rome sous la République, le Champ de Mars est considéré comme le quatrième quartier de la ville avec le Palatin, le Forum et le Capitole, comme l’atteste la construction de nombreux édifices publics (civils comme religieux) dans la partie méridionale dès l’époque républicaine (le Forum Holitorium et la zone du Circus Flaminius)⁶.

Fin de la République et principat d’Auguste

Au début de l’Empire, le Champ de Mars perd son rôle politique avec la disparition de la censure et la perte de pouvoirs puis la suppression des comices, mais la région n’est pas délaissée pour autant étant donné le potentiel en matière d’urbanisme qu’offre l’espace encore disponible au nord du Campus Flaminius¹². Cet espace est déjà convoité et utilisé dès la fin de la République par Pompée qui construit un grand complexe comprenant un théâtre, un temple, des portiques et une curie et par César qui projette de construire de grandes Saepta monumentales¹³. C’est sous l’impulsion conjointe d’Auguste et d’Agrippaque l’espace libre se couvre véritablement de monuments publics avec le Panthéon, les thermes d’Agrippa, le temple de Bonus Eventus, les Saepta Iulia, le Diribitorium ou encore le portique Vipsania. Auguste choisit le nord du Champ de Mars pour établir l’autel de la Paix et son mausolée¹³.

Auguste entreprend également la restauration et une réorganisation des monuments du Campus Flaminius, se réappropriant le symbolisme de chaque monument pour les intégrer dans un vaste complexe dynastique comprenant entre autres le portique d’Octavius, le portique d’Octavie, le portique de Philippe, le temple d’Apollon Sosianus, le théâtre de Marcellus et le théâtre de Balbus.

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

Vestiges du portique d’Octavie.
Reconstitution de l’autel de la Paix.
Façade du Panthéon.

Époque impériale

Les monuments augustéens sont régulièrement restaurés et reconstruits par les différents empereurs. Le Panthéon notamment est transformé par Hadrien pour adopter la forme qu’on lui connaît aujourd’hui. Mais les successeurs d’Auguste ne se contentent pas seulement de maintenir en état ou de faire évoluer les monuments existants, ils en construisent de nouveaux¹⁴, le Champ de Mars restant la seule région où l’urbanisme impérial peut encore librement s’exprimer¹². Les empereurs érigent de nombreux arcs de triomphe, Néron fait construire de vastes thermes, Domitien, un stade et un odéon, Antonin le Pieux un temple dédié à Hadrien divinisé et une colonne sur le modèle de la colonne Trajane à l’instar de Marc-Aurèle quelques années plus tôt¹⁵. Tous ces monuments dédiés aux loisirs ou abritant des activités commerciales sont construits en parallèle avec de grands jardins qui transforment la région en un « quartier de plaisance » qui occupe une place importante dans la vie quotidienne des citoyens romains¹⁶. L’empereur Valentinien III fut assassiné sur le Champ de Mars le 16 mars 455^{[réf. nécessaire]}.

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

La Piazza Navona a conservé la forme du stade antique.
Colonne de Marc-Aurèle.
Base de la colonne d’Antonin.

De l’Antiquité à nos jours

Contrairement à d’autres quartiers de la Rome antique, le Champ de Mars n’a pas été abandonné au Moyen Âge. Le tracé des rues antiques a donc survécu, notamment celui de la Via Flaminia dont la portion à l’intérieur du mur d’Aurélien devient la Via Lata qui correspond à l’actuelle Via del Corso.

La région antique est aujourd’hui en partie incluse dans le rione Campo Marzio, un des 22 rioni de la ville moderne de Rome. Il est désigné dans la nomenclature administrative par le code R.IV.

La famille Borghèse y construisit un très important palais au début du xvii^e siècle.

Localisation du rione Campo Marziosur une carte du Municipio I de Rome.
Logo du rione Campo Marzio.

Notes et références

Sources modernes :

↑Unicaen CIREVE.
↑Jacobs et Conlin 2015, p. 2.
↑Platner et Ashby 1929, p. 91-94.
↑Platner et Ashby 1929, p. 91.
↑Platner et Ashby 1929, p. 91-92.
↑ ^a, b et cHomo 1971, p. 350.
↑Platner et Ashby 1929, p. 92.
↑Platner et Ashby 1929, p. 92-93.
↑Platner et Ashby 1929, p. 93.
↑Richardson 1992, p. 278.1.
↑Jacobs et Conlin 2015.
↑ ^a et bHomo 1971, p. 350-351.
↑ ^a et bHomo 1971, p. 351.
↑Homo 1971, p. 351-352.
↑Homo 1971, p. 352.
↑Homo 1971, p. 353.

Sources antiques :

↑Tite-Live, Histoire romaine, III, 54-63
↑Varron, Lingua latina, V, 154
↑CIL VI, 874 [archive]
↑Denys d’Halicarnasse, Antiquités romaines, V, 13
↑Tite-Live, Histoire romaine, II, 5
↑Denys d’Halicarnasse, Antiquités romaines, V, 13

Bibliographie

Francesco Piranesi, Il Camp Marzio dell’antica Roma, gravures d’après les dessins de Giovanni Battista Piranesi, 1800.
(en) Samuel Ball Platner et Thomas Ashby, A topographical dictionary of Ancient Rome, Londres, Oxford University Press, 1929, 608 p.
Léon Homo, Rome impériale et l’urbanisme dans l’Antiquité, Albin Michel, coll. « L’évolution de l’humanité », 1971, 665 p.
(en) Lawrence Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992, 488 p.(ISBN 0801843006)
Luc Duret et Jean-Paul Néraudau, Urbanisme et métamorphose de la Rome antique, Les Belles Lettres, coll. « Realia », 2001
(en) Filippo Coarelli, Rome and environs : an archaeological guide, University of California Press, 2007, 555 p.(ISBN 978-0-520-07961-8)
(en) John W. Stamper, The architecture of roman temples : the Republic to the middle Empire, Cambridge University Press, 2005, 287 p.
(en) Roger B. Ulrich (dir.) et Caroline K. Quenemoen (dir.), A Companion to Roman Architecture, Blackwell Publishing, coll. « Blackwell companions to the Ancient World », 2014
(en) Paul W. Jacobs et Diane Atnally Conlin, Campus Martius : The Field of Mars in the Life of Ancient Rome, Cambridge University Press, 2015, 268 p.(ISBN 9781107664920)

Articles connexes

« Le Plan de Rome » [archive], Centre Interdisciplinaire de Réalité Virtuelle (CIREVE) de l’Université de Caen
- « Le Champ de Mars (vue d’ensemble) » [archive], sur Le Plan de Rome, CIREVE
- « Simulation de crues du Tibre à Rome du iv^e siècle au i^er siècle av. J.-C. » [archive], sur Le Plan de Rome, CIREVE

Plan intemporel du Champ de Mars central

Stagnum ?

Insulae

d’époque

hadrianique

Entrepôts
?

Saepta

Iulia

Diribitorium

Divorum

Aqua
Virgo

Arc de
Claude

Portique
Vipsania

Caserne de
la I^re cohorte
des vigiles

Iseum

Temple de
Minerve
chalcidique

Via
Flaminia

Temples du
Largo Argentina

Portique de
Minucius

Colonne de
Marc-Aurèle

Colonne
d’Antonin le Pieux

Autel de Faustine
l’Ancienne

Autel de Faustine
la Jeune

Via Recta

Portique et temple
de Bonus Eventus

Portique de
Pompée

Arc
Nouveau

Portique de
Méléagre

Portique des
Argonautes

Piazza
della
Rotonda

Villa
Publica

Plan intemporel du Champ de Mars méridional

Tibre

Navalia

Circus Flaminius

Temple
d’Apollon
Sosianus

Temple de
Jupiter
Stator

Temple de
Junon
Regina

Crypta
Balbi

Diribitorium

T. des
Lares
Permarini

Curie de
Pompée

Portique de
Pompée

Théâtre de
Pompée

Temple de
Vénus Victrix

Temple de
Mars

Sanctuaire
d’Hercules
Magnus Custos

Temple de
Castor et Pollux

Pont
Fabricius

Île Tibérine

Porticus
Maximae

T. de
Neptune

Divorum

Villa Publica

Hecatostylum

T. de la
Fortune
équestre

Amphithéâtre de
Statilius Taurus
(?)

[afficher]

v · m

Collines et vallées de la Rome antique

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champ_de_Mars_(Rome)

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 2 août 2018

Publié dans: Mesolithic, Roca dels Moros, Spain, Roca dels Moros, Spain, The Dance of Cogul, tracing by Henri Breuil, Senza categoria, The Shigir Idol. Tagué : "Chronology of Indian prehistory from the Mesolithic period to the Iron Age", "Radiocarbon chronology of the Shigir and Gorbunovo archaeological bog sites, (E Boaretto and N R Rebollo Franco eds.), 000 and 6, 000 B.C.", 000 year old pendant is earliest known Mesolithic art in Britain", 000-Year-Old Teenager Reconstructed, 000–4000 BP is based on the combination of the ranges given by Agrawal et al. (1978) and by Sen (1999), 19 January 2018. Jump up^ Srejovic, 1968 (nb 1st edn.) Jump up^ "11, 1999, 1999: "The Mesolithic period roughly ranges between 10, 2008, 2012, 37-44: "A total time bracket of c. 6000-2000 B.C. will cover the dated Mesolithic sites, 500 years old. N.E. Zaretskaya et al., 783–794. Jump up^ Munro, 783–794. Jump up^ The term "Mesolithic" is not a useful term for the periodization of the South Asian Stone Age, 9780521855037 Jump up^ Sandars, 9788122411980 Jump up^ Central Asia does not enter the Neolithic, A.; Burger, A.A.; Panin, Adamgarh, Alex; Milner, Ancient Indian History and Civilization, and language : how Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world. Princeton, and overlaps with the early Neolithic at Mehrgarh. D. P. Agrawal et al., and the transition to agriculture in the southern Levant" (PDF). Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte. 12: 47–71. Jump up^ Bar-Yosef, and there is no consistent usage of the term . The range 12, art, as certain tribes in the interior of the Indian subcontinent retained a mesolithic culture into the modern period, Bagor, Barry (2016). "The Resettlement of the British Landscape: Towards a chronology of Early Mesolithic lithic assemblage types". Internet Archaeology. 42. doi:10.11141/ia.42.12. Jump up^ Morgan, Beyond the models: Neolithisation in Central Europe, Bhimbetka, but transitions from the Mesolithic to the Chalcolithic in the fourth millennium BC (metmuseum.org). The early onset of the Mesolithic in Central Asia and its importance for later European mesolithi, C.; Fajkosova, C.; Scholma-Mason, Cambridge University Press, Chantal; Bayliss, Chi, Christophe, climate and human settlement. pp. 245–370. ISBN978-9402404654. Jump up^ Anthony, D.W. (2007). "Pontic-Caspian Mesolithic and Early Neolithic societies at the time of the Black Sea Flood: a small audience and small effects". In Yanko-Hombach, David W. (2010). The horse, Detlef (2007). "Beyond the models: Neolithisation in Central Europe". Proceedings of the British Academy. 144: 73–98. Jump up^ Detlef Gronenborn, Documenta Praehistorica. Poročilo o raziskovanju paleolitika, Douglas, Dragoslav (1972). Europe's First Monumental Sculpture: New Discoveries at Lepenski Vir. ISBN0-500-39009-6. Jump up^ Central Asia does not enter the Neolithic, e.g. Langhnaj, ed. (2000). Europe's first farmers. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN0521665728. Jump up^ Bollongino, ed. (2002). The Penguin archaeology guide. London: Penguin Books. ISBN0-14-051448-1. Jump up^ Conneller, ed. (2004). The last hunter-gatherers in the Near East. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports 1320. ISBN978-1-84171-389-2. Jump up^ Zhang, etc." (p. 38) S. N. Sen, F. (1997). Social differentiering i mesolitiska jägar-samlarsamhällen. Uppsala.: Institutionen för arkeologi och antik historia, Face of 9, Geoff and Spikins, giacobbe giusti, History of Art, Human-Like Figure Is Twice As Old As Egypt's Pyramids". Live Science. Retrieved 28 April 2018. Jump up^ De Roevers, Ireland. Jump up^ V. Gaffney; et al. "Time and a Place: A luni-solar 'time-reckoner' from 8th millennium BC Scotland". Internet Archaeology. Retrieved 16 July 2013. Jump up^ Price, ISBN0521855039, ISBN8122411983, Issue 1, J. (2013). "2000 Years of Parallel Societies in Stone Age Central Europe" (PDF). Science. 342 (6157): 479–481. doi:10.1126/science.1245049. Jump up^ Bailey, J.; Thomas, January 1978, Journal of Human Evolution Volume 7, Killian (2006). The early prehistory in the west of Ireland: Investigations into the social archaeology of the Mesolithic, Laura (25 April 2018). "This Eerie, Lekhahia, Linder, M. G.; Sell, M. P.; Orschiedt, Mesolithic, Mesolithic Europe, Middle Urals, N. (2017). "Animated GIFs as Expressive Visual Narratives and Expository Devices in Archaeology". Internet Archaeology (44). doi:10.11141/ia.44.11. Jump up^ Driscoll, N.; Dolukhanov, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN9780691148182. Jump up^ Gronenborn, Nancy K., Natalie D. (2003). "Small game, National Geographic, neolotika in eneolitika v Sloveniji. Neolitske študije = Neolithic studies, New Age International, Nicky; Taylor, now Yale, Nr 3–4, O.; Richards, Ofer (1998). "The Natufian Culture in the Levant, p. 23, p. 4, P. M. The Black Sea Flood Question: changes in coastline, p.162-163 Jump up^ Anthony, Paul, Penguin (Pelican, Penny, pp. 1-13 dLib Jump up^ Sailendra Nath Sen, pp. 73-98 (87). Jump up^ Sarah Gibbens, pp. 87-96, Prehistoric Art in Europe, Proceedings of the 6th International Radiocarbon and Archaeology Symposium, Proceedings of the British Academy, R.; Nehlich, RADIOCARBON Vol 54, Roca dels Moros, Russia, Spain), The Mesolithic and the Neolithic in China (PDF), The Shigir Idol, the wheel, the Younger Dryas, Threshold to the Origins of Agriculture" (PDF). Evolutionary Anthropology. 6 (5): 159–177. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6:53.0.CO;2-7. Jump up^ Delage, University of York Jump up^ Geggel, Uppsala universitet. Jump up^ "final Upper Paleolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the Mesolithic" Bahn, V.; Gilbert, vol. 144 (2007), west of the Shannon, with the radiocarbon dating of the Shigor idol to 11, Z.; Powell, [Zv.] 26 (1999). Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

Roca dels Moros, Spain, The Dance of Cogul, tracing by Henri Breuil

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

The Shigir Idol

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

Reconstruction of a « temporary » house in Ireland; waterside sites offered good food resources.

The Mesolithic This box: view talk edit
↑ Upper Paleolithic
Mesolithic Europe Fosna–Hensbacka culture Komsa culture Maglemosian culture Lepenski Vir culture Kunda culture Narva culture Komornica culture Swiderian culture Epipaleolithic Transylvania Mesolithic Transylvania Tardenoisian Schela Cladovei culture Mesolithic Southeastern Europe Epipaleolithic (Levant) Levantine corridor Natufian Khiamian Caucasus Trialetian Zagros Zarzian culture

↓ Neolithic

In Old World archaeology, Mesolithic(Greek: μέσος, mesos « middle »; λίθος, lithos« stone ») is the period between the Upper Paleolithic and the Neolithic. The term Epipaleolithic is often used synonymously, especially for outside northern Europe, and for the corresponding period in the Levantand Caucasus. The Mesolithic has different time spans in different parts of Eurasia. It refers to the final period of hunter-gatherercultures in Europe and West Asia, between the end of the Last Glacial Maximum and the Neolithic Revolution. In Europe it spans roughly 15,000 to 5,000 BP, in Southwest Asia (the Epipalaeolithic Near East) roughly 20,000 to 8,000 BP. The term is less used of areas further east, and not all beyond Eurasia and North Africa.

The type of culture associated with the Mesolithic varies between areas, but it is associated with a decline in the group hunting of large animals in favour of a broader hunter-gatherer way of life, and the development of more sophisticated and typically smaller lithic tools and weapons than the heavy chipped equivalents typical of the Paleolithic. Depending on the region, some use of pottery and textiles may be found in sites allocated to the Mesolithic, but generally indications of agriculture are taken as marking transition into the Neolithic. The more permanent settlements tend to be close to the sea or inland waters offering a good supply of food. Mesolithic societies are not seen as very complex, and burials are fairly simple; grandiose burial mounds are another mark of the Neolithic.

Terminology

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

Mesolithic microliths

The terms « Paleolithic » and « Neolithic » were introduced by John Lubbock in his work Pre-historic Times in 1865. The additional « Mesolithic » category was added as an intermediate category by Hodder Westropp in 1866. Westropp’s suggestion was immediately controversial. A British school led by John Evans denied any need for an intermediate: the ages blended together like the colors of a rainbow, he said. A European school led by Louis Laurent Gabriel de Mortillet asserted that there was a gap between the earlier and later.

Edouard Piette claimed to have filled the gap with his naming of the Azilian Culture. Knut Stjerna offered an alternative in the « Epipaleolithic », suggesting a final phase of the Paleolithic rather than an intermediate age in its own right inserted between the Paleolithic and Neolithic.

By the time of Vere Gordon Childe‘s work, The Dawn of Europe (1947), which affirms the Mesolithic, sufficient data had been collected to determine that a transitional period between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic was indeed a useful concept.^[1]However, the terms « Mesolithic » and « Epipalaeolitic » remain in competition, with varying conventions of usage. In the archaeology of Northern Europe, for example for archaeological sites in Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavia, Ukraine, and Russia, the term « Mesolithic » is almost always used. In the archaeology of other areas, the term « Epipaleolithic » may be preferred by most authors, or there may be divergences between authors over which term to use or what meaning to assign to each. In the New World, neither term is used (except provisionally in the Arctic).

« Epipaleolithic » is sometimes also used alongside « Mesolithic » for the final end of the Upper Paleolithic immediately followed by the Mesolithic.^[2] As « Mesolithic » suggests an intermediate period, followed by the Neolithic, some authors prefer the term « Epipaleolithic » for hunter-gatherer cultures who are not succeeded by agricultural traditions, reserving « Mesolithic » for cultures who are clearly succeeded by the Neolithic Revolution, such as the Natufian culture. Other authors use « Mesolithic » as a generic term for post-LGM hunter-gatherer cultures, whether they are transitional towards agriculture or not. In addition, terminology appears to differ between archaeological sub-disciplines, with « Mesolithic » being widely used in European archaeology, while « Epipalaeolithic » is more common in Near Eastern archaeology.

Europe

The Shigir Idol

Two skeletons of women aged between 25 and 35 years, dated between 6740 and 5680 BP, both of whom died a violent death. Found at Téviec, France in 1938.

The Mesolithic began with the Holocene warm period around 11,660 BP and ended with the introduction of farming, the date of which varied in each geographical region. Regions that experienced greater environmental effects as the last glacial period ended have a much more apparent Mesolithic era, lasting millennia.^[3] In northern Europe, for example, societies were able to live well on rich food supplies from the marshlands created by the warmer climate. Such conditions produced distinctive human behaviors that are preserved in the material record, such as the Maglemosian and Azilian cultures. Such conditions also delayed the coming of the Neolithic until as late as 5000–4000 BCE in northern Europe.

Animated image showing the sequence of engravings on a pendant excavated from the Mesolithic archaeological site of Starr Carr in 2015^[4]

The type of stone toolkit remains one of the most diagnostic features: the Mesolithic used a microlithic technology – composite devices manufactured with Mode V chipped stone tools (microliths), while the Paleolithic had utilized Modes I–IV. In some areas, however, such as Ireland, parts of Portugal, the Isle of Man and the Tyrrhenian Islands, a macrolithic technology was used in the Mesolithic.^[5] In the Neolithic, the microlithic technology was replaced by a macrolithic technology, with an increased use of polished stone tools such as stone axes.

There is some evidence for the beginning of construction at sites with a ritual or astronomical significance, including Stonehenge, with a short row of large post holes aligned east-west, and a possible « lunar calendar » at Warren Field in Scotland, with pits of post holes of varying sizes, thought to reflect the lunar phases. Both are dated to around 8,000 BCE.^[6]

As the « Neolithic package » (including farming, herding, polished stone axes, timber longhouses and pottery) spread into Europe, the Mesolithic way of life was marginalized and eventually disappeared. Mesolithic adaptations such as sedentism, population size and use of plant foods are cited as evidence of the transition to agriculture.^[7] In one sample from the Blätterhöhle in Hagen, it seems that the descendants of Mesolithic people maintained a foraging lifestyle for more than 2000 years after the arrival of farming societies in the area;^[8] such societies may be called « Subneolithic« . In north-Eastern Europe, the hunting and fishing lifestyle continued into the Medieval period in regions less suited to agriculture, and in Scandinavia no Mesolithic period may be accepted, with the locally preferred « Older Stone Age » moving into the « Younger Stone Age ».^[9]

Art

Roca dels Moros, Spain, The Dance of Cogul, tracing by Henri Breuil

Compared to the preceding Upper Paleolithic and the following Neolithic, there is rather less surviving art from the Mesolithic. The Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin, which probably spreads across from the Upper Paleolithic, is a widespread phenomenon, much less well known than the cave-paintings of the Upper Paleolithic, with which it makes an interesting contrast. The sites are now mostly cliff faces in the open air, and the subjects are now mostly human rather than animal, with large groups of small figures; there are 45 figures at Roca dels Moros. Clothing is shown, and scenes of dancing, fighting, hunting and food-gathering. The figures are much smaller than the animals of Paleolithic art, and depicted much more schematically, though often in energetic poses.^[10] A few small engraved pendants with suspension holes and simple engraved designs are known, some from northern Europe in amber, and one from Starr Carr in Britain in shale.^[11] The Elk’s Head of Huittinen is a rare Mesolithic animal carving in soapstone from Finland.

The rock art in the Urals appears to show similar changes after the Paleolithic, and the wooden Shigir Idol is a rare survival of what may well have been a very common material for sculpture. It is a plank of larch carved with geometric motifs, but topped with a human head. Now in fragments, it would apparently have been over 5 metres tall when made.^[12] The Ain Sakhri Lovers from modern Israel, are a Natufian carving in calcite.

Ceramic Mesolithic

In North-Eastern Europe, Siberia, and certain southern European and North African sites, a « ceramic Mesolithic » can be distinguished between 7000-3850 BCE. Russian archaeologists prefer to describe such pottery-making cultures as Neolithic, even though farming is absent. This pottery-making Mesolithic culture can be found peripheral to the sedentary Neolithic cultures. It created a distinctive type of pottery, with point or knob base and flared rims, manufactured by methods not used by the Neolithic farmers. Though each area of Mesolithic ceramic developed an individual style, common features suggest a single point of origin.^[13]^{[citation needed]} The earliest manifestation of this type of pottery may be in the region around Lake Baikal in Siberia. It appears in the Elshan or Yelshanka or Samara culture on the Volga in Russia c. 7000 BCE,^[14]^[15] and from there spread via the Dnieper-Donets culture to the Narva culture of the Eastern Baltic. Spreading westward along the coastline it is found in the Ertebølle culture of Denmark and Ellerbek of Northern Germany, and the related Swifterbant culture of the Low Countries.^[16]

^[17]

Cultures

Geographical range	Periodization	Culture	Temporal range	Notable sites
Southeastern Europe (Greece, Aegean)	Balkan Mesolithic		15,000–7,000 BP	Franchthi, Theopetra^[18]
Southeastern Europe(Romania/Serbia)	Balkan Mesolithic	Iron Gates culture	13,000–5,000 BP	Lepenski Vir^[19]
Western Europe	Early Mesolithic	Azilian	14,000–10,000 BP
Northern Europe (Norway)		Fosna-Hensbacka culture	12,000–10,500 BP
Northern Europe (Norway)	Early Mesolithic	Komsa culture	12,000–10,000 BP
Central Asia (Middle Urals)			12,000–5,000 BP	Shigir Idol, Vtoraya Beregovaya^[20]
Northeastern Europe (Balticsand Russia)	Middle Mesolithic	Kunda culture	10,500–7,000 BP	Lammasmägi, Pulli settlement
Northern Europe		Maglemosian culture	11,000–8,000 BP
Western and Central Europe		Sauveterrian culture	10,500–8,500 BP
Western Europe (Great Britain)	British Mesolithic		11,000–5,500 BP	Star Carr, Howick house, Gough’s Cave, Cramond, Aveline’s Hole
Western Europe (Ireland)	Irish Mesolithic		11,000–5,500 BP	Mount Sandel
Western Europe (Belgium and France)		Tardenoisian culture	10,000–5,000 BP
Eastern Europe (Belarus, Lithuania and Poland)	Late Mesolithic	Neman culture	9,000–5,000 BP
Northern Europe (Scandinavia)		Nøstvet and Lihult cultures	8,200-5,200 BP
Northern Europe (Scandinavia)		Kongemose culture	8,000–7,200 BP
Northern Europe (Scandinavia)	Late Mesolithic	Ertebølle	7,300– 5,900 BP
Western Europe (Netherlands)	Late Mesolithic	Swifterbant	7,300–5,400 BP

Near East

The first period, known as Mesolithic 1 (Kebarian culture; from 20,000–18,000 BCE until 12,150 BCE), followed the Aurignacian or Levantine Upper Paleolithic periods throughout the Levant. By the end of the Aurignacian, gradual changes took place in stone industries. Small stone tools called microliths and retouched bladelets can be found for the first time. The microliths of this culture period differ greatly from the Aurignacian artifacts. This period is more properly called Epipaleolithic.

By 20,000–18,000 BCE the climate and environment had changed, starting a period of transition. The Levant became more arid and the forest vegetation retreated, to be replaced by steppe. The cool and dry period ended at the beginning of Mesolithic 1. The hunter-gatherers of the Aurignacian would have had to modify their way of living and their pattern of settlement to adapt to the changing conditions. The crystallization of these new patterns resulted in Mesolithic 1. New types of settlements and new stone industries developed.

The inhabitants of a small Mesolithic 1 site in the Levant left little more than their chipped stone tools behind. The industry was of small tools made of bladelets struck off single-platform cores. Besides bladelets, burins and end-scrapers were found. A few bone tools and some ground stone have also been found. These so-called Mesolithic sites of Asia are far less numerous than those of the Neolithic and the archeological remains are very poor. The second period, Mesolithic 2, is also called the Natufian culture. The change from Mesolithic 1 to Natufian culture can be dated more closely. The latest date from a Mesolithic 1 site in the Levant is 12,150 BCE. The earliest date from a Natufian site is 11,140 BCE.^{[citation needed]} This period is characterized by the early rise of agriculture that would later emerge into the Neolithic period. Radiocarbon dating places the Natufian culture between 12,500 and 9500 BCE, just before the end of the Pleistocene.^[21] This period is characterised by the beginning of agriculture.^[22] The earliest known battle occurred during the Mesolithic period at a site in Sudan known as Cemetery 117.

Natufian culture is commonly split into two subperiods: Early Natufian (12,500–10,800 BCE) (Christopher Delage gives c. 13,000–11,500 BP uncalibrated, equivalent to c. 13,700–11,500 BCE)^[23] and Late Natufian (10,800–9500 BCE). The Late Natufian most likely occurred in tandem with the Younger Dryas. The following period is often called the Pre-Pottery Neolithic; in the Levant, unlike elsewhere, « Mesolithic pottery » is not talked of.

Geographical range	Periodization	Culture	Temporal range
North Africa (Morocco)	Late Upper Paleolithic to Early Mesolithic	Iberomaurusian culture	24,000–10,000 BP
Southwest Asia(Caucasus, Iran)	Late Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic	Zarzian culture	20,000–10,000 BP
Levant	Early Epipaleolithic	Kebaran	19,000–14,500 BP
Caucasus	Epipaleolithic	Trialetian	16,000–8,000 BP
Levant	Late Epipaleolithic	Natufian culture	14,500–11,500 BP
Levant (Israel)	Late Epipaleolithic	Harifian culture(Late Natufian)	10,800–10,000 BP
North Africa		Capsian culture	12,000–8,000 BP

« Mesolithic » outside of Western Eurasia

While Paleolithic and Neolithic have been found useful terms and concepts in the archaeology of China, and can be mostly regarded as happily naturalized, Mesolithic was introduced later, mostly after 1945, and does not appear to be a necessary or useful term in the context of China. Chinese sites that have been regarded as Mesolithic are better considered as « Early Neolithic ».^[24]

In the archaeology of India, the Mesolithic, dated roughly between 12,000 and 8,000 BP, remains a concept in use.^[25]

In the archaeology of the Americas, an Archaic or Meso-Indian period, following the Lithic stage, somewhat equates to the Mesolithic.

Geographical range	Periodization	Culture	Temporal range	Notable sites
North Africa (Morocco)	Late Upper Paleolithic to Early Mesolithic	Iberomaurusian culture	24,000–10,000 BP
North Africa		Capsian culture	12,000–8,000 BP
Central Asia (Middle Urals)			12,000–5,000 BP	Shigir Idol, Vtoraya Beregovaya^[26]
East Asia (Japan)	Jōmon cultures		16,000–1,350 BP
East Asia (Korea)	Jeulmun pottery period		10,000–3,500 BP
South Asia (India)	South Asian Stone Age		12,000–4000 BP^[27]	Bhimbetka rock shelters

Mesolithic.

References

Jump up^ Linder, F. (1997). Social differentiering i mesolitiska jägar-samlarsamhällen. Uppsala.: Institutionen för arkeologi och antik historia, Uppsala universitet.
Jump up^ « final Upper Paleolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the Mesolithic » Bahn, Paul, ed. (2002). The Penguin archaeology guide. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-051448-1.
Jump up^ Conneller, Chantal; Bayliss, Alex; Milner, Nicky; Taylor, Barry (2016). « The Resettlement of the British Landscape: Towards a chronology of Early Mesolithic lithic assemblage types ». Internet Archaeology. 42. doi:10.11141/ia.42.12.
Jump up^ Morgan, C.; Scholma-Mason, N. (2017). « Animated GIFs as Expressive Visual Narratives and Expository Devices in Archaeology ». Internet Archaeology (44). doi:10.11141/ia.44.11.
Jump up^ Driscoll, Killian (2006). The early prehistory in the west of Ireland: Investigations into the social archaeology of the Mesolithic, west of the Shannon, Ireland.
Jump up^ V. Gaffney; et al. « Time and a Place: A luni-solar ‘time-reckoner’ from 8th millennium BC Scotland ». Internet Archaeology. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
Jump up^ Price, Douglas, ed. (2000). Europe’s first farmers. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 0521665728.
Jump up^ Bollongino, R.; Nehlich, O.; Richards, M. P.; Orschiedt, J.; Thomas, M. G.; Sell, C.; Fajkosova, Z.; Powell, A.; Burger, J. (2013). « 2000 Years of Parallel Societies in Stone Age Central Europe » (PDF). Science. 342 (6157): 479–481. doi:10.1126/science.1245049.
Jump up^ Bailey, Geoff and Spikins, Penny, Mesolithic Europe, p. 4, 2008, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521855039, 9780521855037
Jump up^ Sandars, Nancy K., Prehistoric Art in Europe, Penguin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), pp. 87-96, 1968 (nb 1st edn.)
Jump up^ « 11,000 year old pendant is earliest known Mesolithic art in Britain », University of York
Jump up^ Geggel, Laura (25 April 2018). « This Eerie, Human-Like Figure Is Twice As Old As Egypt’s Pyramids ». Live Science. Retrieved 28 April 2018.
Jump up^ De Roevers, p.162-163
Jump up^ Anthony, D.W. (2007). « Pontic-Caspian Mesolithic and Early Neolithic societies at the time of the Black Sea Flood: a small audience and small effects ». In Yanko-Hombach, V.; Gilbert, A.A.; Panin, N.; Dolukhanov, P. M. The Black Sea Flood Question: changes in coastline, climate and human settlement. pp. 245–370. ISBN 978-9402404654.
Jump up^ Anthony, David W. (2010). The horse, the wheel, and language : how Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691148182.
Jump up^ Gronenborn, Detlef (2007). « Beyond the models: Neolithisation in Central Europe ». Proceedings of the British Academy. 144: 73–98.
Jump up^ Detlef Gronenborn, Beyond the models: Neolithisation in Central Europe, Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. 144 (2007), pp. 73-98 (87).
Jump up^ Sarah Gibbens, Face of 9,000-Year-Old Teenager Reconstructed, National Geographic, 19 January 2018.
Jump up^ Srejovic, Dragoslav (1972). Europe’s First Monumental Sculpture: New Discoveries at Lepenski Vir. ISBN 0-500-39009-6.
Jump up^ Central Asia does not enter the Neolithic, but transitions from the Mesolithic to the Chalcolithic in the fourth millennium BC (metmuseum.org). The early onset of the Mesolithic in Central Asia and its importance for later European mesolithic cultures was understood only after 2015, with the radiocarbon dating of the Shigor idol to 11,500 years old. N.E. Zaretskaya et al., « Radiocarbon chronology of the Shigir and Gorbunovo archaeological bog sites, Middle Urals, Russia », Proceedings of the 6th International Radiocarbon and Archaeology Symposium, (E Boaretto and N R Rebollo Franco eds.), RADIOCARBON Vol 54, Nr 3–4, 2012, 783–794.
Jump up^ Munro, Natalie D. (2003). « Small game, the Younger Dryas, and the transition to agriculture in the southern Levant » (PDF). Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte. 12: 47–71.
Jump up^ Bar-Yosef, Ofer (1998). « The Natufian Culture in the Levant, Threshold to the Origins of Agriculture » (PDF). Evolutionary Anthropology. 6 (5): 159–177. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6:5<159::AID-EVAN4>3.0.CO;2-7.
Jump up^ Delage, Christophe, ed. (2004). The last hunter-gatherers in the Near East. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports 1320. ISBN 978-1-84171-389-2.
Jump up^ Zhang, Chi, The Mesolithic and the Neolithic in China (PDF), 1999, Documenta Praehistorica. Poročilo o raziskovanju paleolitika, neolotika in eneolitika v Sloveniji. Neolitske študije = Neolithic studies, [Zv.] 26 (1999), pp. 1-13 dLib
Jump up^ Sailendra Nath Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization, p. 23, 1999, New Age International, ISBN 8122411983, 9788122411980
Jump up^ Central Asia does not enter the Neolithic, but transitions from the Mesolithic to the Chalcolithic in the fourth millennium BC (metmuseum.org). The early onset of the Mesolithic in Central Asia and its importance for later European mesolithic cultures was understood only after 2015, with the radiocarbon dating of the Shigor idol to 11,500 years old. N.E. Zaretskaya et al., « Radiocarbon chronology of the Shigir and Gorbunovo archaeological bog sites, Middle Urals, Russia », Proceedings of the 6th International Radiocarbon and Archaeology Symposium, (E Boaretto and N R Rebollo Franco eds.), RADIOCARBON Vol 54, Nr 3–4, 2012, 783–794.
Jump up^ The term « Mesolithic » is not a useful term for the periodization of the South Asian Stone Age, as certain tribes in the interior of the Indian subcontinent retained a mesolithic culture into the modern period, and there is no consistent usage of the term . The range 12,000–4000 BP is based on the combination of the ranges given by Agrawal et al. (1978) and by Sen (1999), and overlaps with the early Neolithic at Mehrgarh. D. P. Agrawal et al., « Chronology of Indian prehistory from the Mesolithic period to the Iron Age », Journal of Human Evolution Volume 7, Issue 1, January 1978, 37-44: « A total time bracket of c. 6000-2000 B.C. will cover the dated Mesolithic sites, e.g. Langhnaj, Bagor, Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Lekhahia, etc. » (p. 38) S. N. Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization, 1999: « The Mesolithic period roughly ranges between 10,000 and 6,000 B.C. » (p. 23).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Canaan (région)

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 21 juin 2018

Publié dans: André Lemaire, « Les Cananéens, le Levant et la mer » Clio [archive] Ju.B.Tsirkin (Novgorod University)- Canaan. Phenicia, Sidon - Aula Orientalis, Beït Shéan, Musée d'Israël, Canaan (région), Canaan/kanaɑ̃/(phénicien : ou 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍, KNˁN (Kanaʿn) ; hébreu : כנעןKənáʿan ; arabe : كنعانKanʿān) désigne une région du Proche-Orient ancien située le, Canaanite sarcophagi (Israel Museum), Dieux cananéens 15-13 siècles avant J.C. trouvé sà Hazor, Musée d'Israël, Jérusalem, Eric M. Meyers (dir.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Archaeology in the Near East, 5 vol., Oxford et New York, Oxford University Press, 1997 (ISBN 0-19-506512-3) (en) Jonathan N. Tubb, Canaanites, , Lion et lionne jouant: stèle en basalte cananéenne XIVe siècle av. J.-C., Beït Shéan, Musée d'Israël, Musée d'Israël, Senza categoria. Tagué : " "Phoenician, " and "Purple" », 1300-1110 B.C.E., 1991 (en) Nadav Na'aman, 1992 ↑ Judges and Ruth, 1997 (ISBN 0-19-506512-3) (en) Jonathan N. Tubb, 1998 (en) Niels P. Lemche, 2005 (en) Ann E. Killibrew, 2005 (en) Lester L. Grabbe, 5 vol., Anchor Bible Dictionary, Ancient Israel : What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?, and Early Israel, André Lemaire, art, Atlanta, ‎ 1965, « Canaan (place) », « Les Cananéens, « The Origin of the Terms "Canaan, Beït Shéan, Biblical People and Ethnicity : An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, British Museum Press, Cambridge University Press, Canaan (région), Canaan in the Second Millennium B.C.E. : Collected Essays Volume 2, Canaan/kanaɑ̃/(phénicien : ou 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍, Canaanite sarcophagi (Israel Museum), Canaanites, dans David Noel Freedman (dir.), Dieux cananéens 15-13 siècles avant J.C. trouvé sà Hazor, Doubleday, Eisenbrauns, Eric M. Meyers (dir.), giacobbe giusti, jerusalem, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, JSOT Press, KNˁN (Kanaʿn) ; hébreu : כנעןKənáʿan ; arabe : كنعانKanʿān) désigne une région du Proche-Orient ancien située le long de la rive orientale de la mer Méditerranée., le Levant et la mer » Clio [archive] Ju.B.Tsirkin (Novgorod University)- Canaan. Phenicia, Lion et lionne jouant: stèle en basalte cananéenne XIVe siècle av. J.-C., londres, Londres et New York, Michael C. Astour, Musée d'Israël, No. 4, Oxford Encyclopaedia of Archaeology in the Near East, Oxford et New York, Oxford University Press, p. 346-350 ↑ (en) Philip C. Schmitz, par Victor Harold Matthews, Philistines, Sheffield, Sidon - Aula Orientalis, Society of Biblical Literature, The Canaanites and their land : The tradition of the Canaanites, University of Chicago Press, vol. 24, Winona Lake. Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Canaan (région)

Canaanite sarcophagi (Israel Museum)

Giacobbe Giusti, Canaan (région)

Map of the southern Levant,^{[original research?]} c. 830s BC.

Kingdom of Judah

Kingdom of Israel

Philistine city-states

Phoenician states

Kingdom of Ammon

Kingdom of Edom

Kingdom of Aram-Damascus

Aramean tribes

Arubu tribes

Nabatu tribes

Assyrian Empire

Kingdom of Moab

Giacobbe Giusti, Canaan (région)

Lion et lionne jouant: stèle en basalte cananéenne XIVe siècle av. J.-C., Beït Shéan, Musée d’Israël

Giacobbe Giusti, Canaan (région)

Dieux cananéens 15-13 siècles avant J.C. trouvé sà Hazor, Musée d’Israël, Jérusalem

Giacobbe Giusti, Canaan (région)

Canaan/kanaɑ̃/(phénicien : ou 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍, KNˁN (Kanaʿn) ; hébreu : כנעןKənáʿan ; arabe : كنعانKanʿān) désigne une région du Proche-Orient ancien située le long de la rive orientale de la mer Méditerranée. Cette région correspond plus ou moins aujourd’hui aux territoires réunissant l’État d’Israël, les Territoires palestiniens, l’ouest de la Jordanie, le Liban et l’ouest de la Syrie. On appelle Cananéens les habitants de ce territoire à l’âge du bronze, parfois appelé pour cette région « période cananéenne ».

Dans le récit biblique, Canaan désigne la terre promise aux Hébreux, par Dieu (Yahvé) à Abraham. Elle désigne la région comprise entre la mer Méditerranée et le Jourdain, avant sa conquête par Josué et les tribus d’Israël sorties d’Égypte. Le terme proviendrait du nom de Canaan, petit-fils de Noé.

Étymologie

L’étymologie de Canaan est discutée. Le mot est généralement considéré comme formé sur une racine sémitique, même si une origine hourrite a aussi pu être proposée. Dans les alphabets nord-ouest sémitiques (hébreu, ougaritique, phénicien), Canaan est écrit knʕn. Dans le texte massorétique de la Bible, il est vocalisé כְּנַעַן(kĕnaʕan). En cunéiforme akkadien, il peut être écrit ki-na-aḫ-nu(m) (Mari, Byblos, Tyr), māt ki-na-ḫi (Assyrie, Ougarit) ou māt ki-in-na-aḫ-ḫi(Égypte, Mitanni, Hattusa, Babylone). On trouve aussi la forme ki-in-a-nim (Alalakh) où la consonne pharyngale /ḫ/ est absente. Le terme dérive probablement de la racine sémitique knʕqui signifie courber, soumettre. Appliqué au soleil, le terme désignerait l’« occident », le « pays du soleil couchant ». L’étymologie hourrite relie Canaan à kinaḫḫu qui désigne un tissu bleu dans les textes cunéiformes de Nuzi, mais cette étymologie est moins probable. Dans la Bible hébraïque, Canaan prend parfois la signification de « marchand » à cause de la réputation de marchands des Phéniciens¹^,².

Tradition biblique

Article détaillé : Pays de Canaan (Bible).

Selon la Bible hébraïque, ce territoire est appelé ainsi du nom du personnage de Cana’an, fils de Cham, second fils de Noé. La Bible fait ensuite mention de sept ethnies qui peuplent le Pays de Canaan et qui sont connues sous le nom générique de Cananéens : ce sont les Hittites, les Girgashites, les Amorrites, les Cananéens, les Perizzites, les Hivites et les Jébuséens.

Dans le livre de Josué, le pays de Canaan fait l’objet de la conquête et du partage du pays par les Hébreux (vers le xii^e siècle av. J.-C.).

Histoire

Âge du Bronze

Dieux cananéens 15-13 siècles avant J.C. trouvé sà Hazor, Musée d’Israël, Jérusalem

Giacobbe Giusti, Canaan (région)

Lion et lionne jouant: stèle en basalte cananéenne XIVe siècle av. J.-C., Beït Shéan, Musée d’Israël

Le nom de Canaan est ancien et semble être apparu au III^e millénaire av. J.-C.. On a retrouvé des mentions de son nom sur des tablettes trouvées dans les ruines de Mari, où elle apparaît en tant qu’entité politique distincte. Il s’agissait sans doute d’une terre d’une certaine diversité ethnique. Mais dans un contexte ethnique, il semble que les Canaanéens, voisins et proches parents des Amorites, correspondent exactement aux Phéniciens.

Sous la XVIII^e dynastie égyptienne, les Égyptiens attaquent à plusieurs reprises le Pays de Canaan, notamment sous Amenhotep I^er, sous Thoutmôsis I^er, où l’armée égyptienne atteint l’Euphrate au nord, sous Thoutmôsis II et sous Thoutmôsis III où a lieu la bataille de Megiddo. Les Cananéens, regroupés sous les ordres du gouverneur de la ville de Qadesh nommé Ali El-Assi, et les Égyptiens, sous les ordres du pharaon Thoutmôsis III, assiègent la ville de Megiddo pendant sept mois et obligent les Cananéens à se rendre.

Âge du Fer

À partir du moment où Israël émerge, le terme Canaan commence à laisser place à trois nouveaux termes selon les régions. La Phéniciedésigna le littoral nord, la Philistie désigna le littoral sud et le Royaume d’Israël les terres intérieures.

Pour certains^{[Qui ?]}, Cananéen peut en fait être considéré comme un synonyme de Phénicien, car les deux peuples parlaient la même langue et avaient les mêmes dieux. Ils estiment que les Israélites n’ont pas fait disparaître les Cananéens mais se seraient mélangés à eux et auraient adopté certaines de leurs coutumes. Certains passages bibliques et le fait que l’hébreu biblique soit linguistiquement très proche du phénicien le prouveraient. Selon la Bible, le roi Hiram de Tyr, dont le sarcophage a été conservé, aurait été ami avec Salomon, roi d’Israël.

Les découvertes archéologiques menées par Israël Finkelstein dans les années 1990 tendent à prouver que le pays de Canaan ne fut pas en fait conquis militairement, mais que l’apparition des premières communautés israélites sur les hautes terres intérieures, vers 1200 av. J.-C., est le résultat d’une transformation interne de la société cananéenne. Les premiers Israélites seraient donc de souche cananéenne (probablement des groupes dissidents, réfractaires à la domination égyptienne qui sévissait alors^{[réf. nécessaire]}), ayant quitté les cités-États des hautes terres et leurs réglementations contraignantes pour s’établir plus à l’ouest^[pas clair].

Religion

La religion cananéenne reconnaissait un dieu primordial³ : El, père de l’humanité et de toute créature. Des tablettes découvertes dans la bibliothèque royale d’Ebla (site archéologique de Tell Mardikh en Syrie), datant du xxiv^e siècle av. J.-C., mentionne ce dieu El en tête d’une liste de divers dieux, comme dieu ancêtre des autres dieux et père de tous les dieux. El était l’époux de la déesse Asherah (ref. tablettes d’Ugarit). Il est le père de nombreux dieux dont les plus importants sont Haddad, Yamet Mot.

Langue cananéenne

Le cananéen désigne aussi un groupe de langues phénico-cananéennes du nord-ouest. Ce sont les dialectes suivants : le phénicien(incluant la langue punique de Carthage) ainsi que l’araméen.

Cananéisme

Article détaillé : Cananéens (politique).

Le terme de Cananéen sera réemployé par un groupe sioniste nationaliste de droite marginal, actif des années 1930 aux années 1970 et qui entendait opérer une rupture néo-païenne avec le judaïsme. On parle de « cananéisme ».

Notes et références

↑ (en) Michael C. Astour, « The Origin of the Terms « Canaan, » « Phoenician, » and « Purple » », Journal of Near Eastern Studies, University of Chicago Press, vol. 24, n^o 4,‎ 1965, p. 346-350
↑ (en) Philip C. Schmitz, « Canaan (place) », dans David Noel Freedman (dir.), Anchor Bible Dictionary, Doubleday, 1992
↑ Judges and Ruth, par Victor Harold Matthews, Cambridge University Press (2004)

Bibliographie

(en) Eric M. Meyers (dir.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Archaeology in the Near East, 5 vol., Oxford et New York, Oxford University Press, 1997 (ISBN 0-19-506512-3)
(en) Jonathan N. Tubb, Canaanites, Londres, British Museum Press, 1998
(en) Niels P. Lemche, The Canaanites and their land : The tradition of the Canaanites, Sheffield, JSOT Press, 1991
(en) Nadav Na’aman, Canaan in the Second Millennium B.C.E. : Collected Essays Volume 2, Winona Lake, Eisenbrauns, 2005
(en) Ann E. Killibrew, Biblical People and Ethnicity : An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300-1110 B.C.E., Atlanta, Society of Biblical Literature, 2005
(en) Lester L. Grabbe, Ancient Israel : What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?, Londres et New York, T&T Clark, 2007(ISBN 978-0-567-03254-6)

Voir aussi

Liens externes

André Lemaire, « Les Cananéens, le Levant et la mer » Clio [archive]
Ju.B.Tsirkin (Novgorod University)- Canaan. Phenicia, Sidon – Aula Orientalis, 19 (2001) p.271-179 [archive]

Canaan.

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaan_(r%C3%A9gion)

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 28 février 2018

Publié dans: Beard, M., Price, S., North, J., Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History, illustrated,Cambridge University Press, 1998. Champeaux, J. (1987). Fortuna. Recherches sur le culte de la Fortuna à Rome e, botticelli venus, Bronze figurine of Venus, Lyon (Roman Lugdunum), Fresco from Pompei, Casa di Venus, 1st century AD. Dug out in 1960. It is supposed that this fresco could be the Roman copy of famous portrait of Campaspe, mistress of Alexander the Great, Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology), National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Sandro Botticelli: The Birth of Venus (c. 1486). Tempera on canvas. 172.5 cm × 278.9 cm (67.9 in × 109.6 in). Uffizi, Florence, Senza categoria, Venus (mythology), Venus Callipyge. Tagué : " Hermes, "The Origins of the goddess Venus" (first published as "De deae Veneris origine", "Venus and the Cabbage, (1963), (English translation), 107) Simon, 165–167, 17, 1964, 1980. Weinstock, 1991. pp. 146. [7] Scullard, 1998. Champeaux, 1st century AD. Dug out in 1960. It is supposed that this fresco could be the Roman copy of famous portrait of Campaspe, 2007. ISBN 978-1-4051-2943-5 Schilling, 408–409, 411) ISBN 0-8018-4300-6 Room, 424) Richardson, 91, A Companion to Roman Religion, a History, A. (1983). Room's Classical Dictionary. London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (pp. 319–322) Rüpke, and Doniger, Ariadne (1998). From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415132339. Turcan, art, art roman, Beard, botticelli, botticelli birth of venus, Brigitte Tast Astarte und Venus. Eine foto-lyrische Annäherung (1996), Brill, Bronze figurine of Venus, Cambridge University Press, Casa di Venus, E. (1962). Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome Volume 1. London: A. Zwemmer Ltd. (pp. 272–263, E. (1990). Die Götter der Römer. Munich: Hirmer Verlag. (pp. 213–228). Staples, florence, Fresco from Pompei, G. (1986). "Roman Venus: public worship and private rites." In M. Henig and A. King (eds.), giacobbe giusti, H.H. (1981). Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic. London: Thames and Hudson. (pp. 97, H.H. (eds.) (1970). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (p. 113) Langlands, Hendrik, illustrated, in Bonnefoy, Italy, J., J. (1987). Fortuna. Recherches sur le culte de la Fortuna à Rome et dans le monde romain des origines à la mort de César. II. Les Transformations de Fortuna sous le République. Rome: Ecole Fran�, Jörg (Editor), L. (1992). A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. (pp. 92, Lyon (Roman Lugdunum), M., mistress of Alexander the Great, Mnemnosyne, N.G.L. and Scullard, Naples, National Archaeological Museum, North, P.T., Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire (pp. 179–188). Oxford: Oxford Committee for Archaeology Monograph 8. Nash, pompei, pp. 378–395. Eden, pp. 448–459. Hammond, pp. 47 – 77) in Pietas: selected studies in Roman religion, Price, R., R. (1982) (2nd ed.). La Religion Romaine de Vénus depuis les origines jusqu'au temps d'Auguste. Paris: Editions E. de Boccard. Schilling, Rebecca (2006). Sexual Morality in Ancient Rome. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85943-1. [6] Lloyd-Morgan, Religions of Rome: Volume 1, Robert (2001). The Cults of the Roman Empire. Blackwell. ISBN 0631200460. Wagenvoort, Roman and European Mythologies, roman art, roman empire, Rome, rome antique, S., S. (1971). Divus Julius. Oxford; Clarendon Press. (pp. 80–90) Gerd Scherm, Sandro Botticelli: The Birth of Venus (c. 1486). Tempera on canvas. 172.5 cm × 278.9 cm (67.9 in × 109.6 in). Uffizi, Series IV, the birth of venus, UFFIZI GALLERY, University of Chicago Press, Venus, Venus (mythology), Venus Callipyge, W. (Editors), Wiley-Blackwell, Y.. Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Detail: the face of Venus

Sandro Botticelli

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Sandro Botticelli: The Birth of Venus (c. 1486). Tempera on canvas. 172.5 cm × 278.9 cm (67.9 in × 109.6 in). Uffizi, Florence

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Fresco from Pompei, Casa di Venus, 1st century AD. Dug out in 1960. It is supposed that this fresco could be the Roman copy of famous portrait of Campaspe, mistress of Alexander the Great

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Bronze figurine of Venus, Lyon(Roman Lugdunum)

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Venus Callipyge Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Artist	Anonymous
Year	1st or 2nd century BC^[1]
Type	White marble
Location	National Archaeological Museum, Naples

Venus (/ˈviːnəs/, Classical Latin: /ˈwɛnʊs/) is the Roman goddess whose functions encompassed love, beauty, desire, sex, fertility, prosperity and victory. In Roman mythology, she was the mother of the Roman people through her son, Aeneas, who survived the fall of Troy and fled to Italy. Julius Caesar claimed her as his ancestor. Venus was central to many religious festivals, and was revered in Roman religion under numerous cult titles.

The Romans adapted the myths and iconography of her Greek counterpart Aphrodite for Roman artand Latin literature. In the later classical traditionof the West, Venus becomes one of the most widely referenced deities of Greco-Roman mythology as the embodiment of love and sexuality.

Name and attributes

Religion in ancient Rome Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)
Marcus Aurelius (head covered) sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter
Practices and beliefs
libation sacrifice votum temples festivals ludi funerals Imperial cult mystery religions
Priesthoods
Pontifices Augures Vestales Flamines Fetiales Epulones Fratres Arvales
Deities
List of Roman deities Twelve major gods Capitoline Triad Aventine Triad underworld gods indigitamenta Deified emperors Divus Julius Divus Augustus
Related topics
Glossary of ancient Roman religion Roman mythology Ancient Greek religion Etruscan religion Gallo-Roman religion Interpretatio graeca Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism
v t e

Venus embodies sex, love, beauty, enticement, seduction, and persuasive female charm among the community of immortal gods; in Latin orthography, her name is indistinguishable from the Latin noun venus (« sexual love » and « sexual desire« ), from which it derives.^[1]^[2] It has connections to venerari (« to honour, to try to please ») and venia (« grace, favour ») through a possible common root in an Indo-European *wenes- or *u̯enis (« friend »). Their common Proto-Indo-European root is assumed as *wen- or *u̯en-« to strive for, wish for, desire, love »).^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Bronze figurine of Venus, Lyon (Roman Lugdunum)

Venus has been described as perhaps « the most original creation of the Roman pantheon »,^[8] and « an ill-defined and assimilative » native goddess, combined « with a strange and exotic Aphrodite ».^[9] Her cults may represent the religiously legitimate charm and seduction of the divine by mortals, in contrast to the formal, contractual relations between most members of Rome’s official pantheon and the state, and the unofficial, illicit manipulation of divine forces through magic.^[10]^[11] The ambivalence of her persuasive functions has been perceived in the relationship of the root *venes- with Latin venenum (poison), in the sense of « a charm, magic philtre« .^[12]

In myth, Venus-Aphrodite was born of sea-foam. Roman theology presents Venus as the yielding, watery female principle, essential to the generation and balance of life. Her male counterparts in the Roman pantheon, Vulcan and Mars, are active and fiery. Venus absorbs and tempers the male essence, uniting the opposites of male and female in mutual affection. She is essentially assimilative and benign, and embraces several otherwise quite disparate functions. She can give military victory, sexual success, good fortune and prosperity. In one context, she is a goddess of prostitutes; in another, she turns the hearts of men and women from sexual vice to virtue.^[13]

Images of Venus have been found in domestic murals, mosaics and household shrines (lararia). Petronius, in his Satyricon, places an image of Venus among the Lares (household gods) of the freedman Trimalchio‘s lararium.^[14] Prospective brides offered Venus a gift « before the wedding »; the nature of the gift, and its timing, are unknown. Some Roman sources say that girls who come of age offer their toys to Venus; it is unclear where the offering is made, and others say this gift is to the Lares.^[15] In dice-games, a popular pastime among Romans of all classes, the luckiest, best possible roll was known as « Venus« .

Signs and symbols

Venus’ signs were for the most part the same as Aphrodite’s. They include roses, which were offered in Venus’ Porta Collina rites,^[16] and above all, myrtle (Latin murtos), which was cultivated for its white, sweetly scented flowers, aromatic, evergreen leaves and its various medical-magical properties. Venus’ statues, and her worshipers, wore myrtle crowns at her festivals.^[17] Before its adoption into Venus’ cults, myrtle was used in the purification rites of Cloacina, the Etruscan-Roman goddess of Rome’s main sewer; later, Cloacina’s association with Venus’ sacred plant made her Venus Cloacina. Likewise, Roman folk-etymology transformed the ancient, obscure goddess Murciainto « Venus of the Myrtles, whom we now call Murcia ».^[18]

Myrtle was thought a particularly potent aphrodisiac. The female pudendum, particularly the clitoris, was known as murtos (myrtle). As goddess of love and sex, Venus played an essential role at Roman prenuptial rites and wedding nights, so myrtle and roses were used in bridal bouquets. Marriage itself was not a seduction but a lawful condition, under Juno‘s authority; so myrtle was excluded from the bridal crown. Venus was also a patron of the ordinary, everyday wine drunk by most Roman men and women; the seductive powers of wine were well known. In the rites to Bona Dea, a goddess of female chastity,^[19] Venus, myrtle and anything male were not only excluded, but unmentionable. The rites allowed women to drink the strongest, sacrificial wine, otherwise reserved for the Roman gods and Roman men; the women euphemistically referred to it as « honey ». Under these special circumstances, they could get virtuously, religiously drunk on strong wine, safe from Venus’ temptations. Outside of this context, ordinary wine (that is, Venus’ wine) tinctured with myrtle oil was thought particularly suitable for women.^[20]

Roman generals given an ovation, a lesser form of Roman triumph, wore a myrtle crown, perhaps to purify themselves and their armies of blood-guilt. The ovation ceremony was assimilated to Venus Victrix (« Victorious Venus »), who was held to have granted and purified its relatively « easy » victory.^[21]^[22]

Cult history and temples

The first known temple to Venus was vowed to Venus Obsequens (« Indulgent Venus »^[23]) by Q. Fabius Gurges in the heat of a battle against the Samnites. It was dedicated in 295 BC, at a site near the Aventine Hill, and was supposedly funded by fines imposed on Roman women for sexual misdemeanours. Its rites and character were probably influenced by or based on Greek Aphrodite‘s cults, which were already diffused in various forms throughout Italian Magna Graeca. Its dedication date connects Venus Obsequens to the Vinalia rustica festival.^[24]^[25]

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Remains of the Temple of Venus Genetrix in the Forum of Caesar, Rome.

In 217 BC, in the early stages of the Second Punic War with Carthage, Rome suffered a disastrous defeat at the battle of Lake Trasimene. The Sibylline oracle suggested that if the Venus Erycina (« Venus of Eryx« ), patron goddess of Carthage’s Sicillian allies, could be persuaded to change her allegiance, Carthage might be defeated. Rome laid siege to Eryx, offered its goddess a magnificent temple as reward for her defection, captured her image and brought it to Rome. It was installed in a temple on the Capitoline Hill, as one of Rome’s twelve Dii consentes. Shorn of her more overtly Carthaginian characteristics,^[26] this « foreign Venus » became Rome’s Venus Genetrix (« Venus the Mother »),^[27]^[27]^[28] As far as the Romans were concerned, this was the homecoming of an ancestral goddess to her people. Roman tradition made Venus the mother and protector of the Trojan prince Aeneas, ancestor of the Roman people. Soon after, Rome’s defeat of Carthage confirmed Venus’s goodwill to Rome, her links to its mythical Trojan past, and her support of its political and military hegemony.^[29]

The Capitoline cult to Venus seems to have been reserved to higher status Romans. A separate cult to Venus Erycina as a fertility deity,^[30] was established in 181 BC, in a traditionally plebeian district just outside Rome’s sacred boundary, near the Colline Gate. The temple, cult and goddess probably retained much of the original’s character and rites.^[30]^[31]^[31] Likewise, a shrine to Venus Verticordia (« Venus the changer of hearts »), established in 114 BC but with links to an ancient cult of Venus-Fortuna, was « bound to the peculiar milieu of the Aventine and the Circus Maximus » – a strongly plebeian context for Venus’s cult, in contrast to her aristocratic cultivation as a Stoicand Epicurian « all-goddess ».^[32]

Towards the end of the Roman Republic, some leading Romans laid personal claims to Venus’ favour. The general and dictator Sulla adopted Felix (« Lucky ») as a surname, acknowledging his debt to heaven-sent good fortune and his particular debt to Venus Felix, for his extraordinarily fortunate political and military career.^[33] His protégé Pompey competed for Venus’ support, dedicating (in 55 BC) a large temple to Venus Victrix as part of his lavishly appointed new theatre, and celebrating his triumph of 54 BC with coins that showed her crowned with triumphal laurels.^[34]

Pompey’s erstwhile friend, ally, and later opponent Julius Caesar went still further. He claimed the favours of Venus Victrix in his military success and Venus Genetrix as a personal, divine ancestress – apparently a long-standing family tradition among the Julii. When Caesar was assassinated, his heir, Augustus, adopted both claims as evidence of his inherent fitness for office, and divine approval of his rule.^[35]Augustus’ new temple to Mars Ultor, divine father of Rome’s legendary founder Romulus, would have underlined the point, with the image of avenging Mars « almost certainly » accompanied by that of his divine consort Venus, and possibly a statue of the deceased and deified Caesar.^[36]

Vitruvius recommends that any new temple to Venus be sited according to rules laid down by the Etruscan haruspices, and built « near to the gate » of the city, where it would be less likely to contaminate « the matrons and youth with the influence of lust ». He finds the Corinthian style, slender, elegant, enriched with ornamental leaves and surmounted by volutes, appropriate to Venus’ character and disposition.^[37] Vitruvius recommends the widest possible spacing between the temple columns, producing a light and airy space, and he offers Venus’s temple in Caesar’s forum as an example of how not to do it; the densely spaced, thickset columns darken the interior, hide the temple doors and crowd the walkways, so that matrons who wish to honour the goddess must enter her temple in single file, rather than arm-in arm.^[38]

In 135 AD the Emperor Hadrian inaugurated a temple to Venus and Roma Aeterna (Eternal Rome) on Rome’s Velian Hill, underlining the Imperial unity of Rome and its provinces, and making Venus the protective genetrix of the entire Roman state, its people and fortunes. It was the largest temple in Ancient Rome.^[39]

Festivals

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Fresco with a seated Venus, restored as a personification of Rome in the so-called ”Dea Barberini” (“Barberini goddess”); Roman artwork, dated first half of the 4th century AD, from a room near the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Laterano

Venus was offered official (state-sponsored) cult in certain festivals of the Roman calendar. Her sacred month was April (Latin Mensis Aprilis) which Roman etymologists understood to derive from aperire, « to open, » with reference to the springtime blossoming of trees and flowers.^[40]

Veneralia (April 1) was held in honour of Venus Verticordia (« Venus the Changer of Hearts »), and Fortuna Virilis (Virile or strong Good Fortune), whose cult was probably by far the older of the two. Venus Verticordia was invented in 220 BC, in response to advice from a Sibylline oracle during Rome’s Punic Wars,^[41] when a series of prodigieswas taken to signify divine displeasure at sexual offenses among Romans of every category and class, including several men and three Vestal Virgins.^[42] Her statue was dedicated by a young woman, chosen as the most pudica (sexually pure) in Rome by a committee of Roman matrons. At first, this statue was probably housed in the temple of Fortuna Virilis, perhaps as divine reinforcement against the perceived moral and religious failings of its cult. In 114 BC Venus Verticordia was given her own temple.^[43] She was meant to persuade Romans of both sexes and every class, whether married or unmarried, to cherish the traditional sexual proprieties and morality known to please the gods and benefit the State. During her rites, her image was taken from her temple to the men’s baths, where it was undressed and washed in warm water by her female attendants, then garlanded with myrtle. Women and men asked Venus Verticordia’s help in affairs of the heart, sex, betrothal and marriage. For Ovid, Venus’s acceptance of the epithet and its attendant responsibilities represented a change of heart in the goddess herself.^[44]

Vinalia urbana (April 23), a wine festival shared by Venus and Jupiter, king of the gods. Venus was patron of « profane » wine, for everyday human use. Jupiter was patron of the strongest, purest, sacrificial grade wine, and controlled the weather on which the autumn grape-harvest would depend. At this festival, men and women alike drank the new vintage of ordinary, non-sacral wine in honour of Venus, whose powers had provided humankind with this gift. Upper-class women gathered at Venus’s Capitoline temple, where a libation of the previous year’s vintage, sacred to Jupiter, was poured into a nearby ditch.^[45]Common girls (vulgares puellae) and prostitutes gathered at Venus’ temple just outside the Colline gate, where they offered her myrtle, mint, and rushes concealed in rose-bunches and asked her for « beauty and popular favour », and to be made « charming and witty ».^[46]

Vinalia Rustica (August 19), originally a rustic Latin festival of wine, vegetable growth and fertility. This was almost certainly Venus’ oldest festival and was associated with her earliest known form, Venus Obsequens. Kitchen gardens and market-gardens, and presumably vineyards were dedicated to her.^[47] Roman opinions differed on whose festival it was. Varro insists that the day was sacred to Jupiter, whose control of the weather governed the ripening of the grapes; but the sacrificial victim, a female lamb (agna), may be evidence that it once belonged to Venus alone.^[48]^[49]

A festival of Venus Genetrix (September 26) was held under state auspices from 46 BC at her Temple in the Forum of Caesar, in fulfillment of a vow by Julius Caesar, who claimed her personal favour as his divine patron, and ancestral goddess of the Julian clan. Caesar dedicated the temple during his unprecedented and extraordinarily lavish quadruple triumph. At the same time, he was pontifex maximus and Rome’s senior magistrate; the festival is thought to mark the unprecedented promotion of a personal, family cult to one of the Roman state. Caesar’s heir, Augustus, made much of these personal and family associations with Venus as an Imperial deity.^[50] The festival’s rites are not known.

Epithets

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Imperial image of Venus suggesting influence from Syria or Palestine, or from the cult of Isis^[51]

Like other major Roman deities, Venus was given a number of epithets that referred to her different cult aspects, roles, and her functional similarities to other deities. Her « original powers seem to have been extended largely by the fondness of the Romans for folk-etymology, and by the prevalence of the religious idea nomen-omenwhich sanctioned any identifications made in this way. »^[52]

Venus Acidalia, in Virgil‘s Aeneid (1.715-722, as mater acidalia). Servius speculates this as reference to a « Fountain of Acidalia » (fons acidalia) where the Graces (Venus’ daughters) were said to bathe; but he also connects it to the Greek word for « arrow », whence « love’s arrows » and love’s « cares and pangs ». Ovid uses acidaliaonly in the latter sense. It is likely a literary conceit, not a cultic epithet.^[53]

Venus Caelestis (Celestial or Heavenly Venus), used from the 2nd century AD for Venus as an aspect of a syncretised supreme goddess. Venus Caelestis is the earliest known Roman recipient of a taurobolium (a form of bull sacrifice), performed at her shrine in Pozzuoli on 5 October 134. This form of the goddess, and the taurobolium, are associated with the « Syrian Goddess », understood as a late equivalent to Astarte, or the Roman Magna Mater, the latter being another supposedly Trojan « Mother of the Romans »^[54]

Venus Calva (« Venus the bald one »), a legendary form of Venus, attested only by post-Classical Roman writings which offer several traditions to explain this appearance and epithet. In one, it commemorates the virtuous offer by Roman matrons of their own hair to make bowstrings during a siege of Rome. In another, king Ancus Marcius‘ wife and other Roman women lost their hair during an epidemic; in hope of its restoration, unafflicted women sacrificed their own hair to Venus.^[55]

Venus Cloacina (« Venus the Purifier »); a fusion of Venus with the Etruscan water goddess Cloacina, who had an ancient shrine above the outfall of the Cloaca Maxima, originally a stream, later covered over to function as Rome’s main sewer. The shrine contained a statue of Venus, whose rites were probably meant to purify the culvert’s polluted waters and noxious airs.^[56] Pliny the Elder, remarking Venus as a goddess of union and reconciliation, identifies the shrine with a legendary episode in Rome’s earliest history, when the warring Romans and Sabines, carrying branches of myrtle, met there to make peace.^[57]

Venus Erycina (« Venus of Eryx« ), captured from Sicily and worshiped in Romanised form by the elite, and respectable matrons, at a temple on the Capitoline Hill. A later temple, outside the Porta Collina and Rome’s sacred boundary, may have preserved some Erycinian features of her cult. It was considered suitable for « common girls » and prostitutes.^[58]^[59]

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Venus being seduced by Mars, fresco from Pompeii, 1st century AD

Venus Frutishonoured by all the Latins with a federal cult at the temple named Frutinal in Lavinium.^[60] Inscriptions found at Lavinium attest the presence of federal cults, without giving precise details.^[61]

Venus Felix (« Lucky Venus »), probably a traditional epithet, later adopted by the dictator Sulla. It was Venus’s cult title at Hadrian‘s temple to Venus Felix et Roma Aeterna on the Via Sacra. This epithet is also used for a specific sculpture at the Vatican Museums.

Venus Genetrix (« Venus the Mother »), as a goddess of motherhood and domesticity, with a festival on September 26, a personal ancestress of the Julian lineage and, more broadly, the divine ancestress of the Roman people. Julius Caesardedicated a Temple of Venus Genetrix in 46 BC. This name has attached to an iconological type of statue of Aphrodite/Venus.

Venus Heliopolitana (« Venus of Heliopolis Syriaca« ), worshipped at Baalbek. A form of Ashtart who formed a third of the Heliopolitan Triad, in which she was the consort of Jupiter(Baʿal) and mother of Mercury(Adon).^{[citation needed]}

Venus Kallipygos (« Venus with the beautiful buttocks »), worshiped at Syracuse.

Venus Libertina (« Venus the Freedwoman« ), probably arising through the semantic similarity and cultural inks between libertina (as « a free woman ») and lubentina (possibly meaning « pleasurable » or « passionate »). Further titles or variants acquired by Venus through the same process, or through orthographic variance, include Libentia, Lubentina, and Lubentini. Venus Libitina links Venus to a patron-goddess of funerals and undertakers, Libitina; a temple was dedicated to Venus Libitina in Libitina’s grove on the Esquiline Hill, « hardly later than 300 BC. »^[62]

Julius Caesar, with Venus holding Victoria on reverse, from February or March 44 BC

Crispina, wife of Commodus, with enthroned Venus Felix holding Victory on reverse

Venus Murcia(« Venus of the Myrtle »), merging Venus with the little-known deity Murcia (or Murcus, or Murtia). Murcia was associated with Rome’s Mons Murcia (the Aventine’s lesser height), and had a shrine in the Circus Maximus. Some sources associate her with the myrtle-tree. Christian writers described her as a goddess of sloth and laziness.^[63]

Venus Obsequens (« Indulgent Venus »^[23]), Venus’ first attested Roman epithet. It was used in the dedication of her first Roman temple, on August 19 in 295 BC during the Third Samnite War by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges. It was sited somewhere near the Aventine Hill and Circus Maximus, and played a central role in the Vinalia Rustica. It was supposedly funded by fines imposed on women found guilty of adultery.^[64]

Venus Physica: Venus as a universal, natural creative force that informs the physical world. She is addressed as « Alma Venus » (« Mother Venus ») by Lucretius in the introductory lines of his vivid, poetic exposition of Epicurean physics and philosophy, De Rerum Natura. She seems to have been a favourite of Lucretius’ patron, Memmius.^[65] Pompeii’s protective goddess was Venus Physica Pompeiana, who had a distinctive, local form as a goddess of the sea, and trade. When Sulla captured Pompeii from the Samnites, he resettled it with his veterans and renamed it for his own family and divine protector Venus, as Colonia Veneria Cornelia (for Sulla’s claims of Venus’ favour, see Venus Felix above).^[66]

Venus Urania (« Heavenly Venus »), used as the title of a book by Basilius von Ramdohr, a relief by Pompeo Marchesi, and a painting by Christian Griepenkerl. (cf. Aphrodite Urania.)

Venus Verticordia (« Venus the Changer of Hearts »). See Veneralia in this article and main article, Veneralia.

Venus Victrix (« Venus the Victorious »), a Romanised aspect of the armed Aphrodite that Greeks had inherited from the East, where the goddess Ishtar « remained a goddess of war, and Venus could bring victory to a Sulla or a Caesar. »^[67] Pompey, Sulla’s protégé, vied with his patron and with Caesar for public recognition as her protégé. In 55 BC he dedicated a temple to her at the top of his theater in the Campus Martius. She had a shrine on the Capitoline Hill, and festivals on August 12 and October 9. A sacrifice was annually dedicated to her on the latter date. In neo-classical art, her epithet as Victrix is often used in the sense of ‘Venus Victorious over men’s hearts’ or in the context of the Judgement of Paris (e.g. Canova‘s Venus Victrix, a half-nude reclining portrait of Pauline Bonaparte).

Mythology and literature

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

A Venus-Aphrodite velificansholding an infant, probably Aeneas,^[68]as Anchises and Luna–Selene look on (Roman-era relief from Aphrodisias)

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Venus and Mars, with Cupid attending, in a wall painting from Pompeii

As with most major gods and goddesses in Roman mythology, the literary concept of Venus is mantled in whole-cloth borrowings from the literary Greek mythology of her counterpart, Aphrodite. In some Latin mythology Cupid was the son of Venus and Mars, the god of war. At other times, or in parallel myths and theologies, Venus was understood to be the consort of Vulcan. Virgil, in compliment to his patron Augustus and the gens Julia, embellished an existing connection between Venus, whom Julius Caesar had adopted as his protectress, and Aeneas. Vergil’s Aeneas is guided to Latium by Venus in her heavenly form, the morning star, shining brightly before him in the daylight sky; much later, she lifts Caesar’s soul to heaven.^[69] In Ovid‘s Fasti Venus came to Rome because she « preferred to be worshipped in the city of her own offspring ».^[70] In Vergil’s poetic account of Octavian‘s victory at the sea-battle of Actium, the future emperor is allied with Venus, Neptune and Minerva. Octavian’s opponents, Antony, Cleopatraand the Egyptians, assisted by bizarre and unhelpful Egyptian deities such as « barking » Anubis, lose the battle.^[71]

In the interpretatio romana of the Germanic pantheon during the early centuries AD, Venus became identified with the Germanic goddess Frijjo, giving rise to the loan translation « Friday » for dies Veneris.

Classical art

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Venus riding a quadriga of elephants, fresco from Pompeii, 1st century AD

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Statue of nude Venus of the Capitoline type, Roman, 2nd century AD, from Campo Iemini, housed in the British Museum

Roman and Hellenistic art produced many variations on the goddess, often based on the Praxitlean type Aphrodite of Cnidus. Many female nudes from this period of sculpture whose subjects are unknown are in modern art history conventionally called ‘Venus’es, even if they originally may have portrayed a mortal woman rather than operated as a cult statue of the goddess.

Examples include:

Medieval art

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Medieval representation of Venus, sitting on a rainbow, with her devotees who offer their hearts to her, 15th century.

Venus, setting fire to the castle where the Rose is imprisoned, in the medieval French romance Roman de la Rose. In this story Venus is portrayed as the mother of Cupid

Art in the classical tradition

Venus became a popular subject of painting and sculpture during the Renaissance period in Europe. As a « classical » figure for whom nuditywas her natural state, it was socially acceptable to depict her unclothed. As the goddess of sexuality, a degree of erotic beauty in her presentation was justified, which appealed to many artists and their patrons. Over time, venus came to refer to any artistic depiction in post-classical art of a nude woman, even when there was no indication that the subject was the goddess.

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

The Birth of Venus, by Sandro Botticelli c. 1485–1486.

Giacobbe Giusti, Venus (mythology)

Venus, Mars, and Vulcan, by Tintoretto

The Birth of Venus (Botticelli) (c. 1485)
Sleeping Venus (c. 1501)
Venus of Urbino (1538)
Venus with a Mirror (c. 1555)
Rokeby Venus
Olympia (1863)
The Birth of Venus (Cabanel) (1863)
The Birth of Venus (Bouguereau) (1879)
Venus of Cherchell, Gsell museum in Algeria
Venus Victrix, and Venus Italica by Antonio Canova

In the field of prehistoric art, since the discovery in 1908 of the so-called « Venus of Willendorf » small Neolithic sculptures of rounded female forms have been conventionally referred to as Venus figurines. Although the name of the actual deity is not known, the knowing contrast between the obese and fertile cult figures and the classical conception of Venus has raised resistance to the terminology.

Gallery

Venus Anadyomene (ca. 1525) by Titian
Venus with a Mirror (ca. 1555) by Titian
Venus by Frans Floris, Hallwyl Museum
Venus looking in the mirror, with Cupid attending, painting ca. 1650 – 1700, by Peter Paul Rubens
Mars Being Disarmed by Venus (1822–25) by Jacques-Louis David
Birth of Venus (1863) by Alexandre Cabanel
Tannhäuser in the Venusberg (1901) by John Collier
Russian Venus (1926) by Boris Kustodiev

Medieval and modern music

In Wagner‘s opera Tannhäuser, which draws on the medieval German legend of the knight and poet Tannhäuser, Venus lives beneath the Venusberg mountain. Tannhäuser breaks his knightly vows by spending a year there with Venus, under her enchantment. When he emerges, he has to seek penance for his sins.

The Dutch band Shocking Blue had a number one hit on the Billboard Top Ten in 1970 with the song titled « Venus« , which was also a hit when covered by Bananarama in 1986. The song « Venus » by the band Television from the 1978 album Marquee Moon references the Venus de Milo. There is also a song named « Venus » written, produced and sung by Lady Gaga, as well as a song named « Birth of Venus Illegitima » by the Swedish symphonic metal Therion, on the album Vovin, and the song « Venus as a Boy » by the Icelandic artist Björk. Another reference to Venus is from Billy Idol’s album « Cyberpunk » , in track # 16 titled « Venus ».

Aphroditus
Hermaphroditus
Love goddess
Lucifer
Hottentot Venus
Sailor Venus (Fictional Character based on myth from series Sailor Moon)
The Golden Bough (myth of Aeneas, son of Venus)
Venus (planet)
Venus symbol

References

Jump up^ Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, 1879, « Venus », (B, Transf., at perseus.org.
Jump up^ Walde & Hofmann, Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 3rd ed. 1938, vol. 2, p. 752-753.
Jump up^ J. Pokorny, Indo-European Etymological Dictionary, p. 1146-1146.
Jump up^ « The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000 ». Retrieved 2016-11-13.
Jump up^ Etymonline link (Harper).
Jump up^ See also William W.Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language New York, 2011 (first ed. 1882) s. v. venerable, venereal, venial.
Jump up^ Mallory, J. P., and Adams, D. Q. (Editors), Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Taylor & Francis, 1997, p. 158. ISBN 1-884964-98-2
Jump up^ Schilling, R., p. 146.
Jump up^ Eden, p. 458ff. Eden is discussing possible associations between the Venus of Eryx and the brassica species Eruca sativa (known in Europe as Rocket), which the Romans considered an aphrodisiac.
Jump up^ R. Schilling La religion romaine de Venus depuis les origines jusqu’au temps d’ AugusteParis, 1954, pp. 13–64
Jump up^ R. Schilling « La relation Venus venia », Latomus, 21, 1962, pp. 3–7
Jump up^ Linked through an adjectival form *venes-no-: William W. Skeat ibid. s.v. « venom »
Jump up^ Staples, Ariadne, From Good Goddess to vestal virgins: sex and category in Roman religion, Routledge, 1998, pp. 12, 15-16, 24 – 26, 149 – 150: Varro‘s theology identifies Venus with water as an aspect of the female principle. To generate life, the watery matrix of the womb requires the virile warmth of fire. To sustain life, water and fire must be balanced; excess of either one, or their mutual antagonism, are unproductive or destructive.
Jump up^ Kaufmann-Heinimann, in Rüpke (ed), 197–8.
Jump up^ Hersch, Karen K., The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity, Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp. 66 – 67.
Jump up^ Eden, P.T., Venus and the Cabbage, Hermes, 91, (1963), p. 456, citing Ovid, Fasti 4, 869-870 cf. I35-I38; Ovid describes the rites observed in the early Imperial era, when the temple environs were part of the Gardens of Sallust.
Jump up^ Versnel, H. S., Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion, Vol. 2, Transition and reversal in myth and ritual, Brill, 1994, p. 262 [1]
Jump up^ Eden, pp. 457 – 8, citing Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Book 15, 119 – 121. Murcia had a shrine at the Circus Maximus.
Jump up^ « Bona Dea » means « The Good Goddess ». She was also a « Women’s goddess ».
Jump up^ Versnel, H. S., Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion, Vol. 2, Transition and reversal in myth and ritual, Brill, 1994, p. 262; see also Versnel, H.S., « The Festival for Bona Dea and the Thesmophoria », Greece & Rome, Second Series, 39, 1, (Apr., 1992), p. 44, citing Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae, 20. For the total exclusion of myrtle (and therefore Venus) at Bona Dea’s rites, see Bona Dea article.
Jump up^ In the Triumph, the general was drawn in a four-horse chariot before his troops. He wore Jupiter’s laurel crown, and was applauded as Jupiter’s embodiment for the day – or a king, by any other name. See Mary Beard, The Roman Triumph, The Belknap Press, 2007.
Jump up^ Brouwer, Henrik H. J., Bona Dea, The Sources and a Description of the Cult, Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l’Empire romain, 110, Brill, 1989: citing Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Book 23, 152 – 158, and Book 15, 125.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b « The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome », v. 1, p. 167
Jump up^ Eden, P.T., « Venus and the Cabbage » Hermes, 91, (1963) p. 456.
Jump up^ Schilling, R. La Religion romaine de Venus, BEFAR, Paris, 1954, p.87, suggests that Venus began as an abstraction of personal qualities, later assuming Aphrodite’s attributes.
Jump up^ Her Sicillian form probably combined elements of Aphrodite and a more warlike Carthaginian-Phoenician Astarte
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Beard et al, Vol 1., pp. 80, 83: see also Livy Ab Urbe Condita 23.31.
Jump up^ Orlin, Eric (2007), in Rüpke, J, ed. A Companion to Roman Religion, Blackwell publishing, p. 62.
Jump up^ Venus’ links with Troy can be traced to the epic, mythic history of the Trojan War, and the Judgement of Paris, in which the Trojan prince Paris chose Aphrodite over Hera and Athena, setting off a train of events that led to war between the Greeks and Trojans, and eventually to Troy’s destruction. In Rome’s foundation myth, Venus was the divine mother of the Trojan prince Aeneas, and thus a divine ancestor of the Roman people as a whole. Mary Beard, The Roman Triumph, The Belknap Press, 2007, p. 23. The Punic Wars saw many similar introductions of foreign cult, including the Phrygian cult to Magna Mater, who also had mythical links to Troy. See also Beard et al., Vol. 1, p. 80.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Lipka, Michael, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach, Brill, 2009, pp. 72-73: Lipka gives a foundation date of 181 BC for Venus’ Colline temple.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Orlin, Eric M., « Foreign Cults in Republican Rome: Rethinking the Pomerial Rule », Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 47 (2002), pp. 4, 8, 14.
Jump up^ Mario Torelli, Typology and Structure of Roman Historical Reliefs, University of Michigan Press, 1992, pp. 8 – 9: the aristocratic ideology of an increasingly Hellenised Venus is « summarized by the famous invocation to Venus Physica in Lucretius‘ poem. »
Jump up^ Plutarch’s original Greek translates this adopted surname, Felix, as Epaphroditus (Aphrodite’s beloved); see Plutarch, Sulla 19.9.
Jump up^ Beard, 2007, pp. 22 – 23.
Jump up^ Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), pp. 67 – 69: « At the battle of Pharsalus, Caesar also vowed a temple, in best republican fashion, to Venus Victrix, almost as if he were summoning Pompey’s protectress to his side in the manner of an evocatio. Three years after Pompey’s defeat at the battle of Actium, Caesar dedicated his new Roman Forum, complete with a temple to his ancestor Venus Genetrix, « apparently in fulfillment of the vow ». The goddess helped provide a divine aura for her descendant, preparing the way for Caesar’s own cult as a divus and the formal institution of the Roman Imperial cult.
Jump up^ Beard et al., Vol 1, pp. 199 – 200.
Jump up^ Immediately after these remarks, Vitruvius prescribes the best positioning for temples to Venus’ two divine consorts, Vulcan and Mars. Vulcan’s should be outside the city, to reduce the dangers of fire, which is his element; Mars’ too should be outside the city, so that « no armed frays may disturb the peace of the citizens, and that this divinity may, moreover, be ready to preserve them from their enemies and the perils of war. » Book 1, 7,1.
Jump up^ The widely spaced, open style preferred by Vitruvius is eustylos. The densely pillared style he criticises is pycnostylos. Book 3, 1, 5.
Jump up^ See James Grout, Encyclopedia Romana, « Temple of Venus and Rome, » online. See also Beard et al., Vol. 1, pp. 257 – 8, 260.
Jump up^ The origin is unknown, but it might derive from Apru, an Etruscan form of Greek Aphrodite’s name.[2]
Jump up^ Either the Sibylline Books (Valerius Maximus, 8. 15. 12) or the Cumaean Sibyl (Ovid, Fasti, 4. 155 – 62).
Jump up^ See Staples, Ariadne, From Good Goddess to vestal virgins: sex and category in Roman religion, Routledge, 1998, pp. 105 – 9.
Jump up^ Carter, Jesse Benedict, « The Cognomina of the Goddess ‘Fortuna,' » Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 31, 1900, p. 66. [3]
Jump up^ Langlands, p. 59, citing Ovid, Fasti, 4. 155 – 62. Romans considered personal ethics or mentality to be functions of the heart.
Jump up^ Olivier de Cazanove, « Jupiter, Liber et le vin latin », Revue de l’histoire des religions, 1988, Vol. 205, Issue 205-3, pp. 245-265 persee
Jump up^ Staples, p. 122, citing Ovid, Fasti, 4,863 – 872.
Jump up^ Vegetable-growers may have been involved in the dedications as a corporate guild: see Eden, P.T., « Venus and the Cabbage » Hermes, 91, (1963) p. 451.
Jump up^ For associations of kind between Roman deities and their sacrificial victims, see Victima.
Jump up^ Lipka, Michael, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach, Brill, 2009, p. 42; citing Varro, Lingua Latina, 6. 16; Varro’s explicit denial that the festival belongs to Venus implies his awareness of opposite scholarly and commonplace opinion. Lipka offers this apparent contradiction as an example of two Roman cults that offer « complementary functional foci ».
Jump up^ Sulla may have set some form of precedent, but there is no evidence that he built her a Temple. Caesar’s associations with Venus as both a personal and state goddess may also have been propagated in the Roman provinces. See James Rives, « Venus Genetrix outside Rome », Phoenix, Vol. 48, No. 4 (Winter, 1994), pp. 294-306.
Jump up^ Description from Walters Art Museum
Jump up^ See Eden, p. 457. For further exposition of nomen-omen (or nomen est omen) see Del Bello, Davide, Forgotten paths: etymology and the allegorical mindset, The Catholic University of America Press, 2007, p.52 ff. [4]
Jump up^ O’Hara, J ames J., « The Significance of Vergil’s Acidalia Mater, and Venus Erycina in Catullus and Ovid », Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 93, 1990, pp. 335-342
Jump up^ Turcan, p. 141 – 143.
Jump up^ R. Schilling La religion romaine de Venus depuis les origines jusqu’au temps d’AugustParis, 1954, pp. 83–89: « L’origine probable du cult de Venus ». Ashby (1929) finds the existence of a temple to Venus Calva « very doubtful »; see Samuel Ball Platner (completed and revised by Thomas Ashby), A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, London, Oxford University Press, 1929, p551.[5]
Jump up^ Eden, p. 457, citing Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Book 15, 119 – 121.
Jump up^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 15, 119, cited in Wagenvoort, p. 180.
Jump up^ Beard et al., Vol 1., pp. 80, 83: see also Livy Ab Urbe Condita 23.31.
Jump up^ Thomas A. J. McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law in Ancient Rome, Oxford University Press, 1998, p.25.
Jump up^ Paulus-Festus s. v. p. 80 L: Frutinal templum Veneris Fruti. Strabo V 3, 5: « At the midway between Ostia and Antium lies Lavinium that has a sanctuary of Aphrodite common to all Latin nations, but which is under the care of the Ardeans, who have entrusted the task to intendents ».
Jump up^ CIL X 797: « Sp. Turrianus Proculus Gellianus… pater patratus…Lavinium sacrorum principiorum p(opuli) R(omani) Quirt(ium) nominisque Latini qui apud Laurentis coluntur« . Cited in B. Liou-Gilles « Naissance de la ligue latine. Mythe et culte de fondation » in Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire 74 1996 1 p.85.
Jump up^ See Eden, p. 457. Varro rationalises the connections as « lubendo libido, libidinosus ac Venus Libentina et Libitina » (Lingua Latina, 6, 47).
Jump up^ Augustine, De civitate Dei, IV. 16; Arnobius, Adversus Nationes, IV. 9. 16; Murcus in Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 1, 33, 5 – cf murcidus = « slothful ».
Jump up^ Staples, Ariadne, From Good Goddess to vestal virgins: sex and category in Roman religion, Routledge, 1998, p. 89.
Jump up^ Elisabeth Asmis, « Lucretius’ Venus and Stoic Zeus », Hermes, 110, (1982), p. 458 ff.
Jump up^ A. Lill, « Myths of Pompeii: reality and legacy », Baltic Journal of Art History, 2011, p. 141, online (accessed 19 August 2013)
Jump up^ Thus Walter Burkert, in Homo Necans (1972) 1983:80, noting C. Koch on « Venus Victrix » in Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, 8 A860-64.
Jump up^ Sometimes interpreted as Eros-Cupid, as a symbol of the sexual union between the goddess and Anchises, but perhaps alluding also to the scene in the Aeneid when Dido holds Cupid disguised as Ascanius in her lap as she falls in love with Aeneas.
Jump up^ Venus as a guide and protector of Aeneas and his descendants is frequent motif in the Aeneid. See discussion throughout M. F. Williams, The Sidus Iulium, the divinity of men, and the Golden Age in Virgil‟ s Aeneid, Leeds International Classical Studies, 2003 « Archived copy »(PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-06-11. Retrieved 2014-03-23.
Jump up^ Orlin, Eric M., « Foreign Cults in Republican Rome: Rethinking the Pomerial Rule », Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 47 (2002) University of Michigan Press, p. 4, note 14, citing Ovid, Fasti, 4.876.
Jump up^ Vergil, Aeneid, 8.696-700.

Sources

Beard, M., Price, S., North, J., Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History, illustrated,Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Champeaux, J. (1987). Fortuna. Recherches sur le culte de la Fortuna à Rome et dans le monde romain des origines à la mort de César. II. Les Transformations de Fortuna sous le République. Rome: Ecole Française de Rome, pp. 378–395.
Eden, P.T., « Venus and the Cabbage, » Hermes, 91, (1963), pp. 448–459.
Hammond, N.G.L. and Scullard, H.H. (eds.) (1970). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (p. 113)
Langlands, Rebecca (2006). Sexual Morality in Ancient Rome. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85943-1. [6]
Lloyd-Morgan, G. (1986). « Roman Venus: public worship and private rites. » In M. Henig and A. King (eds.), Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire (pp. 179–188). Oxford: Oxford Committee for Archaeology Monograph 8.
Nash, E. (1962). Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome Volume 1. London: A. Zwemmer Ltd. (pp. 272–263, 424)
Richardson, L. (1992). A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. (pp. 92, 165–167, 408–409, 411) ISBN 0-8018-4300-6
Room, A. (1983). Room’s Classical Dictionary. London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (pp. 319–322)
Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007. ISBN 978-1-4051-2943-5
Schilling, R. (1982) (2nd ed.). La Religion Romaine de Vénus depuis les origines jusqu’au temps d’Auguste. Paris: Editions E. de Boccard.
Schilling, R., in Bonnefoy, Y., and Doniger, W. (Editors), Roman and European Mythologies, (English translation), University of Chicago Press, 1991. pp. 146. [7]
Scullard, H.H. (1981). Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic. London: Thames and Hudson. (pp. 97, 107)
Simon, E. (1990). Die Götter der Römer. Munich: Hirmer Verlag. (pp. 213–228).
Staples, Ariadne (1998). From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415132339.
Turcan, Robert (2001). The Cults of the Roman Empire. Blackwell. ISBN 0631200460.
Wagenvoort, Hendrik, « The Origins of the goddess Venus » (first published as « De deae Veneris origine », Mnemnosyne, Series IV, 17, 1964, pp. 47 – 77) in Pietas: selected studies in Roman religion, Brill, 1980.
Weinstock, S. (1971). Divus Julius. Oxford; Clarendon Press. (pp. 80–90)
Gerd Scherm, Brigitte Tast Astarte und Venus. Eine foto-lyrische Annäherung (1996), ISBN 3-88842-603-0

Venus (dea)

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