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Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 23 mars 2019
Publié dans: Baiae, Baiae (Italian: Baia; Neapolitan: Baia) was an ancient Roman town situated on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Naples, and now in the comune of Bacoli. It was a fashionable resort for cent, Baynes, T.S., ed. (1878), "Baiæ" , Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 240  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "Baiae" , Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (11t, Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae, Senza categoria. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

 

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Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae

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Compex of the roman thermapbath

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae

Temple of Mercury

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Compex of the roman thermapbath

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae

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Baiae
Baia
Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae
Settore di Sosandra 20.JPG

Thermal baths of the sector of Sosandra
Baiae is located in Campania

Baiae
Shown within Campania

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Location Bacoli, Campania, Italy
Region Italia
Coordinates 40°49′00″N 14°04′11″E
Type Settlement
History
Cultures Roman

Villa of the Ambulatio

Baiae (Italian: Baia; Neapolitan: Baia) was an ancient Roman town situated on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Naples, and now in the comune of Bacoli. It was a fashionable resort for centuries in antiquity, particularly towards the end of the Roman Republic, when it was reckoned as superior to Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Capri by the super-rich who built luxurious villas here from 100 BC to 500 AD. It was notorious for its hedonistic offerings and the attendant rumours of corruption and scandal.

The lower part of the town later became submerged in the sea due to local volcanic, bradyseismic activity which raised or lowered the land, and recent underwater archaeology has revealed many of the fine buildings now protected in the submerged archaeological park.[1]

Many impressive buildings from the upper town can be seen in the Parco Archeologico delle Terme di Baia.

Name

Baiae was said to have been named after Baius (Greek: Βαῖος, Baîos), the helmsman of Odysseus‘s ship in Homer‘s Odyssey, who was supposedly buried nearby.[2] The adjacent « Baian Gulf » (Latin: Sinus Baianus) was named after the town. It now forms the western part of the Gulf of Pozzuoli.[2]

The settlement was also mentioned in 178 bc under the name Aquae Cumanae(« Cumaean Waters »).[3]

History

Satellite view of area

Baiae was built on the Cumaean Peninsula in the Phlegraean Fields, an active volcanic area. It was perhaps originally developed as the port for Cumae.

Baiae was particularly fashionable towards the end of the Roman Republic. Marius, Lucullus, and Pompey all frequented it.[4] Julius Caesar had a villa there, and much of the town became imperial property under Augustus.[citation needed] Nero had a notable villa constructed in the middle of the 1st century and Hadrian died at his villa in ad 138.[5] It was also a favourite spot of the emperor Septimius Severus.[4] The resorts sometimes capitalised on their imperial associations: Suetonius mentions in his history that the cloak, brooch, and gold bulla given to the young Tiberius by Pompey‘s daughter Pompeia Magna were still on display around ad 120.

According to Suetonius, in ad 39, Baiae was the location for a stunt by the eccentric emperor Caligula to answer the astrologer Thrasyllus‘s prediction that he had « no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Gulf of Baiae ». Caligula ordered a 3-mile-long pontoon bridge to be built from impounded ships of the area, fastened together and weighted with sand, stretching from Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli. Clad in a gold cloak, he then crossed it upon a horse.[6]Cassius Dio‘s Roman History also includes the event, with the detail that the emperor ordered resting places and lodging rooms with potable water erected at intervals along the bridge.[7] As late as the 18th century, scattered fragments were still being shown to tourists as the « Bridge of Caligula ».[8] Malloch has argued that Suetonius’s account was likely coloured by his bias against Caligula; instead, he claims that “the act of bridging the Bay of Naples was an excellent—and safe—means by which to lay the foundation for [Caligula’s] military glory.”[9]

Baiae was notorious for the hedonistic lifestyle of its residents and guests. In 56 bc, the prominent socialite Clodia was condemned by the defence at the trial of Marcus Caelius Rufus as living as a harlot in Rome and at the « crowded resort of Baiae », indulging in beach parties and long drinking sessions. An elegy by Sextus Propertiuswritten in the Augustan Age describes it as a « den of licentiousness and vice ». In the 1st century, « Baiae and Vice » formed one of the moral epistles written by Seneca the Younger; he described it as a « vortex of luxury » and a « harbour of vice » where girls went to play at being girls, old women as girls and some men as girls according to a first century BC wag.[citation needed]

It never attained municipal status, being administered throughout by nearby Cumae.[4]

From 36BC, Baiae included Portus Julius, the base of the western fleet of the Roman Navy before it was abandoned because of the silting up of Lake Lucrinus (from which a short channel led to Lake Avernus) for the two harbours at Cape Misenum 4 miles south.

Baiae was sacked during the barbarian invasions[4] and again by Muslim raiders in the 8th century. It was deserted owing to recurrent malaria by 1500,[citation needed] but Pedro de Toledo erected a castle, Castello di Baja, in the 16th century.[4]

Archaeology

Temple of Mercury

The site had occasionally revealed Roman sculptures. The Aphrodite of Baiae, a variant of the Venus de Medici, was supposedly excavated there sometime before 1803, when the English antiquary Thomas Hope began displaying it in his gallery on Duchess Street in London.[10]

The important archaeological remains were intensively excavated from 1941, revealing layers of buildings, villas and thermal complexes belonging to periods from the late Republican age, the Augustan, Hadrianic to the late empire.

The lowering of the ground below sea level, due to bradyseism, seems to have occurred in two phases: between the third and fifth centuries, still in the late Imperial era, followed by a more substantial submersion a century later. The lower part of Baiae was largely submerged by the sea by the 8th century.[11]

A cache of plaster casts of Hellenistic sculptures was discovered in the cellar of the Baths of Sosandra at Baiae; they are now displayed at the town’s archaeological museum.[12] The collection includes parts of several famous sculptures, including Athens‘s Harmodius and Aristogeiton and the Athena of Velletri. It suggests that the area had a workshop mass-producing marble or bronze copies of Greek art for the Italian market.[13]

Monuments

Temple of Diana

« Temple of Mercury » which has remarkable acoustic properties

Among the most significant and remarkable remains are several dome-like structures such as the great so-called Temple of Mercury, the Temple of Venus, and the Temple of Diana, which were traditionally credited to some of the more famous residents of the town’s villas, (although they were not temples but parts of thermal baths).[4]

Temple of Diana

This colossal ogival dome, today half collapsed, originally collected vapours coming from the ground below and was used for thermal baths. It was decorated with marble friezes depicting hunting scenes [14].

Temple of Mercury

The « Temple of Mercury »[15] consists of an enormous 21.5 m (71 ft) diameter dome, a miracle of engineering and the largest in the world prior to the construction of Rome‘s Pantheon in ad 128.[16][17] The dome has a central hole or oculus and was made with large tuff blocks.

It was, and is still today, used to enclose the frigidarium or cold pool of the public baths. From eighteenth century descriptions it appeared to have had six niches of which four were semicircular.

Temple of Venus

Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae

Temple of Venus

Another octagonal building, sunken 3 metres in the ground, had eight large arched windows and a balcony inside overlooking the pool. It owes its name to Scipione Mazzella who claimed to have found the statue of the goddess there.[18]

Sector of Sosandra

Villa of the Ambulatio

Overlooking the sea is the « Villa of the Ambulatio » with a series of six terraces connected to each other by a complex of staircases of which the last leads to the « sector of Mercury ». It is named after the ‘ambulatio’, the long corridor with two longitudinal naves on the second terrace, intended to be a covered walk with large openings with a magnificent panorama of the gulf below. Traces of precious stucco can be seen on the brick structure of the central pillars. On the upper terrace were the residential areas, once richly decorated with several rooms dedicated to leisure. The third terrace is now transformed into a tree-lined garden. The fourth terrace was for service areas. On the fifth terrace are several rooms probably used as places to stay and rest, open to the sea and to the last terrace below that once was occupied by a garden, as today, perhaps surrounded by a colonnade.

Sector of Sosandra

Bounded by two parallel staircases is the sector or « Temple of Sosandra » from the name of the statue found in 1953 and now located in the National Museum of Naples.

The complexity of this sector on four terraces does not allow its intended use to be identified but it was either a spa, a villa, a hospitalia (a sort of hotel for visitors to the nearby spa), or even a meeting place of Nero for the entertainment of sailors of the nearby Classis Misenensis, the Miseno fleet.

On the highest terrace are service areas and a small balneum with rich stucco decorations on the ceiling. The next level has a large terrace open to the sea and bordered on three sides by a portico. In the garden are four parallel walls that perhaps delimited three triclinia in the open. Above the peristyle are several residential rooms, once richly finished, particularly the original precious mosaic floors representing theatrical masks inside geometric frames. Below this level there is a semicircular building surmounted by five vaulted rooms once hidden by a façade decorated with niches and columns, overall making an impressive composition. On the axis of the complex is a room perhaps used as a nymphaeum from which flowed the water that fed an existing large external circular tank. On the peristyle of the lower terrace are paintings from two successive periods: those with an egyptian taste (characters and symbols of the cult of Isis ) from the middle of the 1st century AD; these are largely covered by paintings of the 2nd century, which depict male and female figures within architectural schemes.

Other sites

Completely submerged by the waters is the nymphaeum of Emperor Claudius whose sculptures have been transferred to the town’s archaeological museum, the Museo Archeologico dei Campi Flegrei [it] (Phlegraean Fields Archaeological Museum) which also contains other items excavated on the site.

The public and private baths of Baiae were filled with warm mineral water directed to their pools from underground hot springs, as many still are today. Roman engineerswere also able to construct a complex system of chambers that channelled underground heat into facilities that acted as saunas. In addition to their recreational function, the baths were used in Roman medicine to treat various illnesses and physicians would attend their patients at the springs.[19]

Mosaic in the baths of Venus

Baiae was supplied with fresh drinking water from a branch of the Aqua Augustaaqueduct, a cross-section of which can be seen nearby. [20]

In culture

Notes

  1. ^ archaeological park: http://www.parcoarcheologicosommersodibaia.it/sito.php?id_lingua=en&id=SI000029
  2. ^ Jump up to:ab EB (1911).
  3. ^ EBO (2007).
  4. ^ Jump up to:abcdef EB (1878).
  5. ^ Historia augusta, ch. 25
  6. ^ Suet., « Caius Caesar Caligula », 12 Caes.
  7. ^ Cassius Dio, Rom. Hist., Bk LIX
  8. ^ Holland, Elizabeth, Ilchester, Lord, ed., Journal, p. 23
  9. ^ Malloch, Simon J.V. (2001), « Gaius’ Bridge at Baiae and Alexander-Imitatio », The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 206–217
  10. ^ Waywell & al. (1986), p. 41 & fig. 11.
  11. ^ Eduardo Scognamiglio, The survey of the submerged Bay: reteissa.it
  12. ^ « Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum », CVA Online
  13. ^ « B216 », Beazley Archive
  14. ^ Mileto S. (1998) The Phlegraean Fields , Rome, Newton & Compton, p. 39 , 40 , 42 , 43 , ISBN88-8183-026-4 .
  15. ^ « The thermo-mineral complex at Baiae and De Balneis Puteolanis », Access My Library
  16. ^ Mark & al. (1986), p. 24.
  17. ^ « The Ancient Baths of Baiae », Tour Italy
  18. ^ Mazzella S. (1591) Site and antiquity of the city of Pozzuolo
  19. ^ Yegül (1996).
  20. ^ Aqua Augusta – Serino (Italy): http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/serino2/index.html
  21. ^ Altshuller (1992), p. 127.

References

  • Wikisource Baynes, T.S., ed. (1878), « Baiæ » , Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, p. 240
  • Wikisource Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), « Baiae » , Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 214
  • « Baiae », Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2007.
  • Altshuller, Mark (1992), « The Transition to the Modern Age: Sentimentalism and Preromanticism, 1790–1820 », in Moser, Charles, The Cambridge History of Russian Literature, rev. ed., Cambridge University Press, ISBN0521425670
  • Mark, R.; Hutchinson, P. (March 1986), « On the Structure of the Roman Pantheon », Art Bulletin, Vol. 68.
  • Waywell, Geoffrey B.; Laev, Raoul (1986), The Lever and Hope Sculptures: Ancient Sculptures in the Lady Lever Art Gallery, Port Sunlight, and a Catalogue of the Ancient Sculptures Formerly in the Hope Collection, London and Deepdene.
  • Yegül, Fikret K. (1996), « The Thermo-Mineral Complex at Baiae and De Balneis Puteolanis », The Art Bulletin, Vol. 78, No. 1, pp. 137–161

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Giacobbe Giusti, Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 20 mars 2019
Publié dans: Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome, Giacobbe Giusti, Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome, Senza categoria. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome

Giovanni Paolo Pannini – The Piazza and Church of Santa Maria Maggiore.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome

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Giacobbe Giusti, Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome

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Giacobbe Giusti, Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome

Michele Campeotto

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 3 janvier 2019
Publié dans: Ballista, Caesar (tr Handforth), 1982, The Conquest of Gaul, London: Penguin Books Campbell, D; 2003, Greek and Roman Artillery 399 BC – AD 363, Osprey Connolly, P; 1975, The Roman Army, Macdonald Educatio, Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista, Roman Stone Throwing Ballista Ancient Greek Artillery Technology Reconstructions and Plans of Greek and Roman Artillery Plans For a Working Model Ballista The reconstruction of a full-size working bal, Senza categoria, Soedel, Werner; Foley, Vernard (March 1979). "Ancient Catapults". Scientific American. 240 (3): 120–28. ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "Ballistra". A Greek-English Lexicon – via . Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

Roman cart-mounted carroballista

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

Roman ‘catapult-nest’ on Trajan’s Column

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

One talent ballista (26 kg weight projectile). The heaviest versions could shoot up to three talents (78 kg), possibly much more.[1]

Part of a series on the
Military of ancient Rome
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The ballista (Latin, from Greek βαλλίστρα ballistra[2]and that from βάλλω ballō, « throw »),[3] plural ballistae, sometimes called bolt thrower, was an ancientmissile weapon that launched a large projectile at a distant target.

Developed from earlier Greek weapons, it relied upon different mechanics, using two levers with torsion springs instead of a tension prod (the bow part of a modern crossbow), offering much greater efficiency over tension-based weaponry. The springs consisting of several loops of twisted skeins. Early versions projected heavy darts or spherical stone projectiles of various sizes for siege warfare. It developed into a smaller precision weapon, the scorpio,[4]and possibly the polybolos.

Greek weapon

 Greek and Roman artillery

The early ballista in Ancient Greece was developed from two weapons called oxybeles and gastraphetes. The gastraphetes (‘belly-bow’) was a handheld crossbow. It had a composite prod and was spanned by bracing the front end of the weapon against the ground while placing the end of a slider mechanism against the stomach. The operator would then walk forward to arm the weapon while a ratchet prevented it from shooting during loading. This produced a weapon which, it was claimed, could be operated by a person of average strength but which had a power that allowed it to be successfully used against armoured troops. The oxybeles was a bigger and heavier construction employing a winch, and was mounted on a tripod. It had a lower rate of fire and was used as a siege engine. With the invention of torsion springbundle technology, the first ballista was built. The advantage of this new technology was the fast relaxation time of this system. Thus it was possible to shoot lighter projectiles with higher velocities over a longer distance.

For an oxybeles, the rules of a torsion weapon demanded that the more energy could be stored, the thicker the prod and the heavier the projectile had to be to increase the amount of stored energy delivered to the projectile. The earliest form of the ballista is thought to have been developed for Dionysius of Syracuse, circa 400 BCE.

The Greek ballista was a siege weapon. All components that were not made of wood were transported in the baggage train. It would be assembled with local wood, if necessary. Some were positioned inside large, armoured, mobile siege towers or even on the edge of a battlefield. For all of the tactical advantages offered, it was only under Philip II of Macedon, and even more so under his son Alexander, that the ballista began to develop and gain recognition as both a siege engine and field artillery. Historical accounts, for instance, cited that Philip II employed a group of engineers within his army to design and build catapults for his military campaigns.[5][6] There is even a claim that it was Philip II – with his team of engineers – who invented the ballista after improving Dionysius’s device, which was merely an oversized slingshot.[7] It was further perfected by Alexander, whose own team of engineers introduced innovations such as the idea of using springs made from tightly strung coils of rope instead of a bow to achieve more energy and power when throwing projectiles.[7] Polybiusreported about the usage of smaller, more portable ballistae, called scorpions, during the Second Punic War.

Ballistae could be easily modified to shoot both spherical and shaft projectiles, allowing their crews to adapt easily to prevailing battlefield situations in real time.

As the role of battlefield artillery became more sophisticated, a universal joint (which was invented just for this function) was integrated into the ballista’s stand, allowing the operators to alter the trajectory and firing direction of the ballista as required without a lengthy disassembly of the machine.

Roman weaponary

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

Reconstructed small ballista

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

Roman ‘catapult-nest’ on Trajan’s Column

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

Ballista bolt heads

After the absorption of the Ancient Greek city-states into the Roman Republic in 146 BCE, the highly advanced Greek technology began to spread across many areas of Roman influence. This included the great military machine advances the Greeks had made (most notably by Dionysus of Syracuse), as well as all the scientific, mathematical, political and artistic developments.

The Romans ‘inherited’ the torsion-powered ballista, which had by now spread to several cities around the Mediterranean, all of which became Roman spoils of war, including one from Pergamum, which was depicted among a pile of trophy weapons in relief on a balustrade.

The torsion ballista, developed by Alexander, was a far more complicated weapon than its predecessor and the Romans developed it even further, especially into much smaller versions, that could be easily carried.

Early Roman ballistae

The early Roman ballistae were made of wood, and held together with iron plates around the frames and iron nails in the stand. The main stand had a slider on the top, into which were loaded the bolts or stone shot. Attached to this, at the back, was a pair of ‘winches‘ and a ‘claw’, used to ratchet the bowstring back to the armed firing position.

The slider passed through the field frames of the weapon, in which were located the torsion springs (rope made of animal sinew), which were twisted around the bow arms, which in turn, were attached to the bowstring.

Drawing the bowstring back with the winches twisted the already taut springs, storing the energy to fire the projectiles. The bronze or iron caps, which secured the torsion-bundles were adjustable by means of pins and peripheral holes, which allowed the weapon to be tuned for symmetrical power and for changing weather conditions.

The ballista was a highly accurate weapon (there are many accounts of single soldiers being picked off by ballista operators), but some design aspects meant it could compromise its accuracy for range. The maximum range was over 500 yards (460 m), but effective combat range for many targets was far shorter.

The Romans continued the development of the ballista, and it became a highly prized and valued weapon in the army of the Roman Empire.

It was used, just before the start of the Empire, by Julius Caesarduring his conquest of Gaul and on both of his campaigns in subduing Britain.

First invasion of Britain

The first of Caesar’s invasions of Britain took place in 55 BCE, after a rapid and successful initial conquest of Gaul, in part as an expedition, and more practically to try to put an end to the reinforcements sent by the native Britons to fight the Romans in Gaul.

A total of eighty transports, carrying two legions, attempted to land on the British shore, only to be driven back by the many British warriors assembled along the shoreline. The ships had to unload their troops on the beach, as it was the only one suitable for many miles, yet the massed ranks of British charioteers and javeliners were making it difficult.

Seeing this, Caesar ordered the warships – which were swifter and easier to handle than the transports, and likely to impress the natives more by their unfamiliar appearance – to be removed a short distance from the others, and then be rowed hard and run ashore on the enemy’s right flank, from which position the slings, bows and artillery could be used by men on deck to drive them back. This manoeuvre was highly successful.
Scared by the strange shape of the warships, the motion of the oars, and the unfamiliar machines, the natives halted and retreated. (Caesar, The Conquest of Gaul, p.99)

Siege of Alesia

A four-wheeled carroballista drawn by armored horses, from an engraving illustrating a 1552 edition of the war-machine catalog De Rebus Bellicis(c. 400)

In Gaul, the stronghold of Alesia was under a Roman siege in 52 BCE, and was completely surrounded by a Roman fortification including a wooden palisade and towers. As was standard siege technique at the time, small ballistae were placed in the towers with other troops armed with bows or slings. The use of the ballista in the Roman siege strategy was also demonstrated in the case of the Siege of Masada.[5]

Ballistae in the Roman Empire

During the conquest of the Empire, the ballista proved its worth many times in sieges and battles, both at sea and on land. It was even used to quell riots. It is from the time of the Roman Empire that many of the archaeological finds of ballistae date. Accounts by the finders, including technical manuals and journals, are used today by archaeologists to reconstruct these weapons.

After Julius Caesar, the ballista was a permanent fixture in the Roman army and, over time, modifications and improvements were made by successive engineers. This included replacing the remaining wooden parts of the machine with metal, creating a much smaller, lighter and more powerful machine than the wooden version, which required less maintenance (though the vital torsion springs were still vulnerable to the strain). The largest ballistae of the 4th century could throw a dart further than 1200 yards (1,100 m). The weapon was named ballista fulminalis in De Rebus Bellicis: « From this ballista, darts were projected not only in great number but also at a large size over a considerable distance, such as across the width of the Danube River. »[8] Ballistae were not only used in laying siege: after ad 350, at least 22 semi-circular towers were erected around the walls of Londinium (London) to provide platforms for permanently mounted defensive devices.[9]

Eastern Roman Empire

Ballista stones found at excavation site in Jerusalem

During the 6th century, Procopius described the effects of this weapon:

But Belisarius placed upon the towers engines which they call « ballistae ». Now these engines have the form of a bow, but on the under side of them a grooved wooden shaft projects; this shaft is so fitted to the bow that it is free to move, and rests upon a straight iron bed. So when men wish to shoot at the enemy with this, they make the parts of the bow which form the ends bend toward one another by means of a short rope fastened to them, and they place in the grooved shaft the arrow, which is about one half the length of the ordinary missiles which they shoot from bows, but about four times as wide…but the missile is discharged from the shaft, and with such force that it attains the distance of not less than two bow-shots, and that, when it hits a tree or a rock, it pierces it easily. Such is the engine which bears this name, being so called because it shoots with very great force[10]

The missiles were able to penetrate body-armour:

And at the Salarian Gate a Goth of goodly stature and a capable warrior, wearing a corselet and having a helmet on his head, a man who was of no mean station in the Gothic nation, refused to remain in the ranks with his comrades, but stood by a tree and kept shooting many missiles at the parapet. But this man by some chance was hit by a missile from an engine which was on a tower at his left. And passing through the corselet and the body of the man, the missile sank more than half its length into the tree, and pinning him to the spot where it entered the tree, it suspended him there a corpse.[11]

Cheiroballistra and manuballista

 Cheiroballistra

The cheiroballistra and the manuballista are held by many archaeologists to be the same weapon.[citation needed] The difference in name may be attributable to the different languages spoken in the Empire. Latin remained the official language in the Western Empire, but the Eastern Empire predominantly used Greek, which added an extra ‘r’ to the word ballista.

The manuballista was a handheld version of the traditional ballista. This new version was made entirely of iron, which conferred greater power to the weapon, since it was smaller, and less iron (an expensive material before the 19th century), was used in its production. It was not the ancient gastraphetes, but the Roman weapon. However, the same physical limitations applied as with the gastraphetes.

Carroballista[edit]

Roman cart-mounted carroballista

 Carroballista

The carroballista was a cart-mounted version of the weapon. There were probably different models of ballista under the cheiroballistraclass, at least two different two-wheeled models and one model with four wheels. Their probable size was roughly 1.47 m width, i.e., 5 Roman feet. The cart system and structure gave it a great deal of flexibility and capability as a battlefield weapon, since the increased maneuverability allowed it to be moved with the flow of the battle. This weapon features several times on Trajan’s Column.

Polybolos

 Polybolos

Reproductions of ancient Greek artillery, including catapults such as the polybolos (to the left in the foreground) and a large, early crossbow known as the gastraphetes (mounted on the wall in the background)

It has been speculated that the Roman military may have also fielded a ‘repeating’ ballista, also known as a polybolos. Reconstruction and trials of such a weapon carried out in a BBC documentary, What the Romans Did For Us, showed that they « were able to shoot eleven bolts a minute, which is almost four times the rate at which an ordinary ballista can be operated ».[12] However, no example of such a weapon has been found by archaeologists.

Archaeology and the Roman ballista

Metal components of the Ampurias Catapult, found in 1912 in the Neapolisof Ampurias

Metal components of a 4th-century ballista

Archaeology, and in particular experimental archaeology has been influential on this subject. Although several ancient authors (such as Vegetius) wrote very detailed technical treatises, providing us with all the information necessary to reconstruct the weapons, all their measurements were in their native language and therefore highly difficult to translate.

Attempts to reconstruct these ancient weapons began at the end of the 19th century, based on rough translations of ancient authors. It was only during the 20th century, however, that many of the reconstructions began to make any sense as a weapon. By bringing in modern engineers, progress was made with the ancient systems of measurement. By redesigning the reconstructions using the new information, archaeologists in that specialty were able to recognize certain finds from Roman military sites, and identify them as ballistae. The information gained from the excavations was fed into the next generation of reconstructions and so on.[citation needed]

Sites across the empire have yielded information on ballistae, from Spain (the Ampurias Catapult), to Italy (the Cremona Battleshield, which proved that the weapons had decorative metal plates to shield the operators), to Iraq (the Hatra Machine) and even Scotland (Burnswark siege tactics training camp), and many other sites between.[citation needed]

The most influential archaeologists in this area have been Peter Connolly and Eric Marsden[13], who have not only written extensively on the subject but have also made many reconstructions themselves and have refined the designs over many years of work.

Middle Ages

With the decline of the Roman Empire, resources to build and maintain these complex machines became very scarce, so the ballista was supplanted initially by the simpler and cheaper onager and the more efficient springald.

Though the weapon continued to be used in the Middle Ages, it faded from popular use with the advent of the trebuchet and mangonel in siege warfare.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Soedel, Werner; Foley, Vernard (March 1979). « Ancient Catapults ». Scientific American. 240 (3): 120–28.
  2. ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. « Ballistra ». A Greek-English Lexicon – via Perseus Tufts.
  3. ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. « Ballo ». A Greek-English Lexicon – via Perseus Tufts.
  4. ^ Warry, John (1995). Warfare in the Classical World: War and the Ancient Civilisations of Greece and Rome. London, United Kingdom: Salamander Books Ltd. p. 178. ISBN0-8061-2794-5.
  5. ^ Jump up to:ab Gabriel, Richard (2007). Soldiers’ Lives through History: The Ancient World. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 127. ISBN0313333483.
  6. ^ McGowen, Tom (2006). Alexander the Great: Conqueror of the Ancient World. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers. p. 24. ISBN9780766025608.
  7. ^ Jump up to:ab Gurstelle, William (2004). Art of the Catapult: Build Greek Ballistae, Roman Onagers, English Trebuchets, and More Ancient Artillery. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. p. 51. ISBN1556525265.
  8. ^ De Rebus Bellicis, Chapter XVIII: ballista fulminalis. Note: The modern width of the Danube is 1.5 km. During the Roman Empire, it was unlikely to have been less than 1.1 km, bearing in mind that Trajan’s Bridge is known to have been longer than 1.1 km.
  9. ^ « Visible Roman London: City wall and gates ». Museum of London Group. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  10. ^ Procopius, Gothic war, chapter XXI
  11. ^ Procopius, Gothic war, chapter XXIII
  12. ^ Hart-Davis, Adam Discovering Roman TechnologyBBC History 17 February 2011. Accessed 21 November 2013
  13. ^ Marsden, E.W. (1971). Greek and Roman Artillery. Technical Treatises (Oxford). Reprinted 1999 by Sandpiper

References

External images
 Reenactor with manuballista, Retrieved 6 February 2008
 Trigger of the polybolos, retrieved 6 February 2008
 Side elevation of the polybolos, retrieved 6 February 2008
 From above with magazin removed, retrieved 6 February 2008
 Another view of the trigger, retrieved 6 February 2008
  • Caesar (tr Handforth), 1982, The Conquest of Gaul, London: Penguin Books
  • Campbell, D; 2003, Greek and Roman Artillery 399 BC – AD 363, Osprey
  • Connolly, P; 1975, The Roman Army, Macdonald Educational
  • Connolly, P; 1998, Greece and Rome at War, Greenhill Books
  • Feugère, M; 2002, Weapons of the Romans, Arcadia
  • Goldsworthy, A; 2003, The Complete Roman Army, Thames and Hudson
  • Marsden, E.W; 1971, Greek and Roman Technical Treatises, Clarendon
  • Warry, J. ;1995, Warfare in the Classical World, Salamander Books Ltd., London: United Kingdom. ISBN 0-8061-2794-5
  • Wilkins, A; 2003, Roman Artillery, Shire Archaeology

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 30 novembre 2018
Publié dans: Baths of Caracalla, Baths of Caracalla rome, Baths of Caracalla(Italian: Terme di Caracalla) in Rome, Italy, were the city's second largest Romanpublic baths, or thermae, likely built between AD 212 (or 211) and 216/217, during the reigns o, Caracalla Thermal Baths, Caracalla Thermen Mosaik, Dowson, Thomas (22 November 2012). "Going Underground at the Baths of Caracalla - Archaeology Travel". Archaeology Travel. Retrieved 27 August 2016. ^ Scarre, Chris (1999). Scarre, Chris, ed. Th, Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla, One of the statues that adorned the baths was the Farnese Hercules, now at Naples, Senza categoria, Taureau Farnèse., The original Pennsylvania Station, New York City (1916), Torse du Belvédère., Torso of the Belvedere, neo-attic artwork, 1st century CE. The inscription on the pedestal reads "made by Apollonios, son of Nestor, Athenian". Museo Pio-Clementino (Inv. 1192), Vatican Museums, Rome.. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

Vasque des thermes de Caracalla, place Farnèse, Rome

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

Taureau Farnèse.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

Torse du Belvédère.

Torso of the Belvedere, neo-attic artwork, 1st century CE. The inscription on the pedestal reads « made by Apollonios, son of Nestor, Athenian ». Museo Pio-Clementino (Inv. 1192), Vatican Museums, Rome.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

Baignoire en granit noir – Musée Pio Cristiano, Vatican

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

CaracallaThermenMosaik

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

CaracallaThermenMosaik

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

Flore Farnèse, Musée archéologique de Naples

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

One of the statues that adorned the baths was the Farnese Hercules, now at Naples

Hercule Farnèse.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

Détail d’une mosaïque.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

The Baths of Caracalla (reconstructive drawing from 1899)

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

Mosaïque des Athlètes – Musée Pio Cristiano, Vatican

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

Panoramica delle Terme di Caracalla

 

 

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Baths of Caracalla
Latin: Thermae Antoninianae

Giacobbe Giusti, Baths of Caracalla

 
Baths of Caracalla, facing Caldarium.jpg

The baths as viewed from the south-west. The caldarium would have been in the front of the image.

Baths of Caracalla is located in Rome

Baths of Caracalla
Baths of Caracalla
The location of the baths in Rome during Antiquity
Alternative name Italian: Terme di Caracalla
Location Rome, Italy
Region Regione XII Piscina Publica
Coordinates 41°52′45.998″N12°29′35.002″ECoordinates: 41°52′45.998″N 12°29′35.002″E
Type Thermae
Part of Ancient Rome
Area 100,000 m2(1,100,000 sq ft)
Volume 8,000,000 L (1,800,000 imp gal; 2,100,000 US gal) (baths’ waters)[1]
Height 40 m (130 ft)[1]
History
Builder Caracalla
Material Marble, pozzolana, lime, tuff, basalt
Founded probably 212-216/217 AD
Abandoned circa 537 AD
Periods Imperial
Site notes
Condition in ruins
Public access Limited
Architecture
Architectural styles Ancient Roman
Official name Baths of Caracalla
Type Cultural, artistic, historical, architectural, religious
Criteria i, ii, iii, iv, vi
Designated
  • Listed: 1980
  • Extension: 1990
  • Minor modification: 2015
Part of Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura
Reference no. 91ter
Documents Historic Centre of Rome…
List of ancient monuments
in Rome

The Baths of Caracalla(Italian: Terme di Caracalla) in Rome, Italy, were the city’s second largest Romanpublic baths, or thermae, likely built between AD 212 (or 211) and 216/217, during the reigns of emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla.[2] They were in operation until the 530s and then fell into disuse and ruin.

However, they have served as an inspiration for many other notable buildings, including the Baths of Diocletian, Basilica of Maxentius, the original Pennsylvania Station(New York) and Chicago Union Station. Art works recovered from the ruins include famous sculptures such as the Farnese Bull and the Farnese Hercules.

Today the Baths of Caracalla are a tourist attraction.

History[edit]

Construction – 216–235

Construction of the baths was probably initiated by emperor Septimius Severus and completed during the reign of his son, Caracalla. They were inaugurated in AD 216. The baths were located in the southern area of the city, Regio XII, where members of the Severan family commissioned other construction works: the via nova leading to the baths and the Septizodium on nearby Palatine Hill.[3]:7

For work to have been mostly completed in the time of Caracalla, workers would have had to install over 2,000 t (2,000 long tons; 2,200 short tons) of material every day for six years in order to complete it between 211 (when Severus died) and 216.[4]

Work on additional decorations continued under Caracalla’s successors Elagabalus and Severus Alexander. The baths were likely mostly finished by 235. Later renovations were conducted under Aurelian (after a fire) and by Diocletian. Under Constantine the Greatthe caldarium was modified.[3]:7–8

The building was heated by a hypocaust, a system of burning coal and wood underneath the ground to heat water provided by a dedicated aqueduct. The baths were free and open to the public.

5th century – destruction in 9th century

The baths were fully functional in the 5th century when they were referred to as one of the seven wonders of Rome. Olympiodorus of Thebes mentions a capacity of 1,600. This is interpreted to refer to the maximum number of simultaneous visitors, as the daily capacity is thought to have been 6,000 to 8,000 bathers.[3]:8

The baths remained in use until the 6th century. In 537 during the Gothic War, Vitiges of the Ostrogoths laid siege to Rome and severed the city’s water supply. Shortly thereafter the baths were abandoned.[5]Located too far away from the still populated area of Rome, the baths were mostly disused but in the 6th and 7th centuries were apparently used for the burials of pilgrims who died after being cared for in the nearby Xenodochium of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo. Some simple tombs from this era have been found inside the bath area.[3]:8–9

Popes Adrian I, Sergius II and Nicholas I may have had some work done on the aqueduct through the 9th century.[3]:9

The earthquake of 847 destroyed much of the building, along with many other Roman structures.[6]

12th century – 19th century – other uses

At least since the 12th century the baths were used as a quarry for construction materials, and of decorative pieces to be reused in churches and palaces ( e.g. in Pisa Cathedral and Santa Maria in Trastevere).[3]:9

During the 14th century, the area was used as vineyards and gardens. In the mid-16th century Pope Paul III had excavations conducted in the area during the construction of his new villa. In 1545-7 many large statues, made of marble and bronze, were recovered from the ruins. Later during the 16th century, the pope granted the area to the Roman Seminary of the Jesuits. It was used as a playground for children. Philip Neri may have brought children from his oratory here – he is believed to have commissioned the fresco Madonna supported by an angel still located in the natatio.[3]:10–2

Between the 16th and 18th century interest in the structure was rekindled and several famous architects made drawings of the ruins (Andrea Palladio, Giovanni Battista Falda, Giambattista Nolli and Giuliano da Sangallo).[3]:12

The aqueduct serving the baths was in use up to the 19th century. The Aqua Antoniniana aqueduct, a branch of the earlier Aqua Marcia also worked on under Diocletian, was specifically built to serve the baths.[citation needed]

Modern times – excavation and restoration

In 1824, excavations at the baths were conducted by Count Egidio di Velo, whose findings included the mosaics showing athletes now at the Vatican Museums. Further work followed by Luigi Canina in the frigidarium (until the mid-19th century) and then by Battista Guidi (1860–7).[3]:12

From 1866 to 1869 restoration work in the central part of the complex revealed a torso of Hercules, porphyr columns and figure-adorned capitals. In 1870 the area became the property of the Italian government and Pietro Rosa conducted excavations in the eastern palaestra. In 1878/9, Giuseppe Fiorelli discovered mosaics in the caldarium and western palaestra.[3]:14

From the early 20th century, excavations expanded into the outer areas of the complex and downward, revealing the subterranean passages, including a mithraeum (see below). Systematic work on the galleries, started in the 18th and 19th centuries, resumed after 1901. On the eastern side more work was done in the late 1930s, when an opera stage was installed in the caldarium. Except for some sketches no documentation of these restorations survives.[3]:14

Further restoration work took place in the 1980s, when thick vegetation and illegally built houses in the area were cleared away. The southern wall with its cisterns, the southwestern library and the octagonal hall known as the Temple of Jupiter were restored at that point. In 1998-9, the opera stage was dismantled and modern visitor facilities were added to the baths. They reopened to the public in 2001.[3]:14

The baths were the only archaeological site in Rome to be damaged by an earthquake near L’Aquila in 2009.[7] They were again damaged, though minor, in August 2016 by an earthquake in central Italy.[8]

Description

Overview

The bath complex covered approximately 25 ha (62 acres). The complex is of rectangular shape, measuring 337 by 328 meters. Its construction involved the moving of a substantial amount of earth, as parts of the nearby hills had to be removed or leveled into platforms. Several million bricks were used in the construction. The baths contained at least 252 columns, 16 of which had a height of over 12 meters.[3]:19

Water was carried to the baths by the then newly constructed acqua nova Antoniniana from the major acqua Marcia. The exact path of the aqueduct supplying the baths is not known as only a few segments have been discovered. The aqueduct connected to the southern side of the baths where it filled 18 cisterns. These in turn were connected by lead pipes with the baths proper.[3]:20–1

The baths followed the « great Imperial baths » blueprint for Roman baths. They were more a leisure centre than just a series of baths. Besides being used for bathing, the complex also offered facilities for taking walks, reading/studying, exercise and body care. The main building stood in the centre with no connections to the surrounding walls, which housed the cisterns, two symmetrical libraries (south), two large exedras (east and west) and tabernae (shops) to the north. The surviving library measures 38 by 22 meters. Between the outer wall and the central complex were gardens (xystus).[3]:25–7

The axis of the baths was laid out in a northeast to southwest fashion to make use of the sun’s heat. The caldarium faced southwest, the frigidarium northeast. Overall, the bath area was arranged along a single linear axis. However, dressing rooms and palaestra were arranged symmetrically on both sides of the building, giving easier access and facilitating the flow of people in and out of the thermal area, thus increasing the number of potential users of the baths.[3]:22

The bath main building was 214 x 110 meters and the height to the top of the roof line was 44 meters (145 ft.); it covered 6.5 acres and could hold an estimated 1,600 bathers.[9]

Interior

The Baths of Caracalla (reconstructive drawing from 1899)

The « baths » were the second to have a public library within the complex. Like other public libraries in Rome, there were two separate and equal sized rooms or buildings; one for Greek language texts and one for Latin language texts.[10] The surviving library had three walls covered by niches (a total of 32) that housed the books. A larger niche in the middle of the southern wall likely contained a statue. A masonry ledge in front of the three other walls probably served as a bench. The floor is made from marble.[3]:26–7

The baths consisted of a central frigidarium (cold room) measuring 58 by 24 m (190 by 79 ft) under three groin vaults 32.9 m (108 ft) high, a double pool tepidarium (medium), and a circular caldarium (hot room) 35 m (115 ft) in diameter, as well as two palaestras (gyms where wrestling and boxing were practiced). The northeastern end of the bath building contained a natatio or swimming pool.[9] The caldariumhad seven pools, the frigidarium four, the tepidarium two. Next to the caldarium were saunas (laconica).[3]:28

The central room was the frigidarium, whose high roof was supported by eight giant columns made from Egyptian granite. Walls and floor were made from marble. The hall served a dual purpose: It was a meeting place and transition area for visitors heading for other parts of the bath. It also housed the cold baths, in the form of four pools, two of which were connected to the tepidarium and two of which communicated with the natatio via some waterfalls. In the middle of the frigidarium was another circular pool (now at the Archaeological Museum at Naples) surrounding a fountain. It was flanked by two additional brick pools.[3]:30–1

The caldarium was a circular room with marble floors and topped by a dome of almost 36 meters diameter, close to the size of the Pantheon‘s dome. The weight of the dome was carried by just eight masonry pillars. Between them were glass windows that helped heat the large room (and reduced the weight of the walls). Its seven pools measured 9.5 m by 5 m (depth of 1 m). Only six of these remain. The seventh was replaced by a small apse during the restoration by Constantine.[3]:32–3

The Olympic-sized natatio pool measured 50 m by 22 m. The walls rose to more than 20 m and the northern façade was structured by three huge columns made from grey granite. Between those columns were niches on several levels which housed ornamental statues.[3]:33

The natatio was roofless with bronze mirrors mounted overhead to direct sunlight into the pool area. The entire bath building was on a raised platform 6 m (20 ft) high to allow for storage and furnaces under the building.[9]

Subterranean features

Subterranean tunnel with skylight

Discovered in 1912 by Ettore Ghislanzoni, the mithraeum at the baths is considered the largest documented gathering space for the worshippers of Mithra, the Persian god in vogue with the military and mostly lower class men, in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. The mithraeum was approximately 23 m (75 ft) long and 10 m (33 ft) wide with a cross-vaulted ceiling. It can be only roughly dated by the two main events associated with the baths: the mithraeum was created after the complex was completed circa AD 217 and it was probably no longer in use when the aqueduct supplying the complex was cut in the 530s.[1][11]

The floor of the main room was covered with a black and white mosaic. Benches lined the walls. A fresco portraying Mithra (or a torch bearer) is on the western wall. The only other ornamentation was a marble block, roughly carved into the shape of a snake. In the floor near the entrance a circular pit was found covered with a marble slab, with a terracotta bowl containing the remains of staves of wheat. A rectangular hole in the floor gives access to a small tunnel that runs under the center of the main hall into an adjoining room, where there is an entrance/exit with staircase. This, a unique feature in a mithraeum, has been controversial. Most scholars view this as a fossa sanguinis, a ritual pit over which the bull at the center of the Mithraic mythology was slaughtered, bathing one or more initiates in its blood. Others think it was used as a sort of stage trap door allowing a person to stage a surprising entry into the room.[1][11][3]:40–3

In a nearby room, a statue of Aphrodite Anadyomene was found in 1912. It is now located in the Museo Nazionale Romano at the Baths of Diocletian.[3]:41,43

Apart from housing the mithraeum, the subterranean tunnels served to heat the baths and as sewers for the outflow of water. They were also used to store the fuel for the furnaces – which are estimated to have burned around 10 tons of wood per day. Storage capacity had been estimated at more than 2,000 tons of wood.[3]:25

Overall, these tunnels ran for hundreds of meters underneath the main structure. They were lit by skylight-type windows that allowed the air to circulate, thus keeping the stored wood from rotting.[3]:39

An underground water mill was excavated beginning in 1912. First thought to be medieval in origin it is now considered to date to Antiquity. It may have been a part of the original workings of the baths. Fire damage indicates it was burned in the 3rd century, but rebuilt with some alterations.[3]:40

Dimensions

Plans of the baths (more here )

Principal dimensions

  • Precinct maximum: 412 m × 393 m (1,352 ft × 1,289 ft)
  • Internal: 337 m × 328 m (1,106 ft × 1,076 ft)
  • Central Block overall: 214 m × 110 m (702 ft × 361 ft)
  • Natatio (swimming pool): 54 m × 23 m (177 ft × 75 ft)
  • Frigidarium: 59 m × 24 m (194 ft × 79 ft), height of 41 m (135 ft)
  • Caldarium: 35 m (115 ft), height of 44 m (144 ft)
  • Internal courts: 67 m × 29 m (220 ft × 95 ft)

Quantities of materials

  • Pozzolana: 341,000 m3 (12,000,000 cu ft)
  • Quick lime: 35,000 m3 (1,200,000 cu ft)
  • Tuff: 341,000 m3 (12,000,000 cu ft)
  • Basalt for foundations: 150,000 m3 (5,300,000 cu ft)
  • Brick pieces for facing: 17.5 million
  • Large Bricks: 520,000
  • Marble columns in Central block: 252
  • Marble for columns and decorations: 6,300 m3 (220,000 cu ft)

Estimated average labour figures on site

  • Excavation: 5,200 men
  • Substructure: 9,500 men
  • Central Block: 4,500 men
  • Decoration: 1,800 men

The 12 m (39 ft) columns of the frigidarium were made of granite and they weighed close to 100 t (98 long tons; 110 short tons).

Works of art

The baths were originally ornamented with high quality sculptures, estimated to have numbered more than 120. Despite their location in one of the city’s working class areas, of all the antique baths in Rome the Baths of Caracalla were found to have contained the most lavish assortment of statues. Although many were destroyed in the Middle Ages to make lime, beginning in the 16th century under Pope Paul III Farnese, sculptures were excavated from the area to serve as decorations in newly built palazzi.[3]:47,51

Among the well-known pieces recovered from the Baths of Caracalla are the Farnese Bull (probably from the eastern palaestra) and Farnese Hercules (from the frigidarium), now in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples; others are in the Museo di Capodimonte there. One of the many statues is the colossal 4 m (13 ft) statue of Asclepius.[3]:47–8

Two granite tubs from the frigidarium were taken to Piazza Farnesewhere they still serve as fountains, made by Girolamo Rainaldi. A granite column from the natatio was taken to Florence by Cosimo I de’ Medici in Piazza Santa Trinita. It is now known as the Column of Justice.[3]:51

Use as a cultural venue

Opera and concerts

The central part of the bath complex (the caldarium) was the summer home of the Rome Opera company from 1937 to 1993. In 2001, use of the venue by the opera resumed but it now uses a temporary movable stage outside of the main structure, which reduces the stress on the antique ruins.[3]:14

It is also a concert venue, having achieved fame as the venue and backdrop for the first Three Tenors concert in 1990.

Sporting

The area was used for the Rome Grand Prix four times between 1947 and 1951.[12][13]

At the 1960 Summer Olympics, the venue hosted the gymnasticsevents.

Visiting

The extensive ruins of the baths have become a popular tourist attraction. The baths are open to the public for an admission fee. Access is limited to certain areas/walkways to avoid additional damage to the mosaic floors.

Cultural impact

The original Pennsylvania Station, New York City (1916)

The Baths of Caracalla (and especially the central frigidarium) had a significant impact on the architecture of many later buildings. In Roman times, these included the Baths of Diocletian and the Basilica of Maxentius.[3]:32

In the 19th and early 20th century, the design of the baths was used as the inspiration for several modern structures, including St George’s Hall in Liverpool and the original Pennsylvania Station (demolished in 1963) in New York City.

The main halls of Penn Station and Chicago Union Station made use of direct copies of the frigidarium’s architecture.[3]:32

References

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Dowson, Thomas (22 November 2012). « Going Underground at the Baths of Caracalla – Archaeology Travel ». Archaeology Travel. Retrieved 27 August 2016.
  2. ^ Scarre, Chris (1999). Scarre, Chris, ed. The Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World: The Great Monuments and How They Were Built (1st ed.). London: Thames & Hudson. p. 178. ISBN 9780500050965.
  3. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v wx y z aa ab ac ad ae af Garbagna, Cristina, ed. (2016). The Baths of Caracalla guide. Mondadori Electa. ISBN 978-88-370-6302-3.
  4. ^ Walker, Charles (1980). Wonders of the Ancient World. New York: Crescent Books. pp. 92–93. ISBN 9780517318256.
  5. ^ « Rome Guide tourist information – Monuments · Caracalla Thermal Baths ». http://www.rome-guide.it.
  6. ^ DeLaine, Janet (1997), The Baths of Caracalla: A study in the design, construction, and economics of large-scale building projects in Imperial Rome, (1st ed.), London: JRA, p. 169.
  7. ^ « L’Aquila earthquake damaged ancient baths in Rome ». The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group Limited. 6 April 2009. Retrieved 27 August 2016.
  8. ^ Kennedy, Maev (24 August 2016). « Art experts fear serious earthquake damage to historic Italian buildings ». The Guardian. Retrieved 27 August2016.
  9. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roth, Leland M. (2007). Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History, and Meaning (2nd ed.). Boulder, Colo.: Westview. ISBN 9780813390451.
  10. ^ DeLaine,(1997), The baths of Caracalla,(1st ed.), London: JRA. p. 191.
  11. ^ Jump up to:a b « Mithraeum at the Baths of Caracalla ». American Institute for Roman Culture. 29 November 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2016.
  12. ^ « More on Caracalla 1947 ». Caracalla 1947. Archived from the original on 2016-08-27. Retrieved 27 August 2016.
  13. ^ Architectural Record, Volumes 19–20. F.W. Dodge Corporation. 1906. p. 454.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baths_of_Caracalla

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Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 13 novembre 2018
Publié dans: casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice, Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens, Senza categoria. Tagué : , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

 

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

 

Pompei, riaprono la casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

Pompei, riaprono la casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

Pompei, riaprono la casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

Pompei, riaprono la casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

Pompei, riaprono la casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice

 

BENEDETTA GEDDO
Lonely Planet Writer

A newly discovered piece of graffiti has changed the history of Pompeii as we know it

Pompeii is a place that keeps on giving. Even though the infamous volcanic eruption happened in 79 AD and the remains of the destroyed Ancient Roman city (cities, to be exact, since the disaster wiped out Herculaneum as well) were discovered as early as the 18th century; the site – one of the most famous in the world – still has treasures waiting to be found. Excavations have brought to light a series of well-preserved frescoes and mosaics, as well as a graffiti that changes the suspected day of the eruption.

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens
This fresco probably represented the mistress of the house. Image courtesy of Pompei Parco Archeologico

A charcoal writing found on the wall of a house that was undergoing renovations in the year of the eruption, states that someone “indulged too much in food here on the sixteenth day before the kalends of November,” meaning on 17 October.

The graffiti that changes the date of the eruption. Image courtesy of Pompei Parco Archeologico

Charcoal is a volatile material that doesn’t generally withstand time, so archaeologists believe that this means the graffiti was jotted down just a few days before the Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD— but in October, instead of August as it’s the belief of most.

Among the new discovery there were also perfectly maintained mosaics. Image courtesy of Pompei Parco Archeologico

Other discoveries were made in the Regio V area of the site, where two houses revealed a real archaeological treasure — mosaics, various objects, and frescoes. The fresco is believed to be part of a lararium, the part of an Ancient Roman house where the gods of family and home were honoured. It’s decorated with lush nature scenes, as well as two serpents, “good demons” who were thought to bring prosperity and fortune.

Pompeii’s director Massimo Osanna in front of the lararium‘s fresco. Image courtesy of Pompei Parco Archeologico

“It’s always exciting to discover something new and see our efforts give results,” commented Pompeii’s director, Massimo Osanna, during a visit to the newly-discovered houses. “It’s also interesting to see traces of previous archaeological excavations emerge, and observe how the same work we’re doing today was conducted in other eras.”

Excavations at Pompeii started as far back as 1748. Image courtesy of Pompei Parco Archeologico

Pompei, riaprono la casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice

FOTOGALLERIA Dopo un lungo restauro le due dimore saranno aperte al pubblico dal 1 novembre

di Oscar De Simone, fotografie per gentile concessione Parco Archeologico di Pompei

http://www.nationalgeographic.it

https://www.lonelyplanet.com/news/2018/10/22/new-discoveries-pompeii-archaeology/

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 25 octobre 2018
Publié dans: : Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-85365-1 Hersey, George (1993), High Renaissance Art in St. Peter's and the Vatican, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-32782-5 Michelangelo , Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France, Roman Theatre of Orange, France, Roman Theatre of Orange (French: Théâtre antique d'Orange) is a Roman theatre in Orange, Vaucluse, France, Senza categoria. Tagué : , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

 

 

Roman Theatre of Orange
UNESCO World Heritage site

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

 
Le Théâtre Antique d'Orange, 2007.jpg
Location Orange, Vaucluse, France
Part of Roman Theatre and its Surroundings and the « Triumphal Arch » of Orange
Criteria Cultural: (iii), (iv)
Reference 163bis-001
Inscription 1981 (5th Session)
Extensions 2007
Area 9.41 ha (23.3 acres)
Buffer zone 116 ha (290 acres)
Website www.culturespaces.com/en/orange
Coordinates 44°8′8.6″N 4°48′30.3″ECoordinates: 44°8′8.6″N 4°48′30.3″E
Roman Theatre of Orange is located in Vaucluse

Roman Theatre of Orange
Location of Roman Theatre of Orange in Vaucluse

Show map of VaucluseShow map of FranceShow all

The Roman Theatre of Orange (French: Théâtre antique d’Orange) is a Roman theatre in Orange, Vaucluse, France. It was built early in the 1st century AD. The structure is owned by the municipality of Orange and is the home of the summer operafestival, the Chorégies d’Orange.

It is one of the best preserved of all Roman theatres, and served the Roman colony of Arausio (or, more specifically, Colonia Julia Firma Secundanorum Arausio: « the Julian colony of Arausio established by the soldiers of the second legion ») which was founded in 40 BC. Playing a major role in the life of the citizens, who spent a large part of their free time there, the theatre was seen by the Roman authorities not only as a means of spreading Roman culture to the colonies, but also as a way of distracting them from all political activities.

Mime, pantomime, poetry readings and the « attelana » (a kind of farce rather like the commedia dell’arte) was the dominant form of entertainment, much of which lasted all day. For the common people, who were fond of spectacular effects, magnificent stage sets became very important, as was the use of stage machinery. The entertainment offered was open to all and free of charge.

As the Western Roman Empire declined during the 4th century, by which time Christianity had become the official religion, the theatre was closed by official edict in AD 391, since the Church opposed what it regarded as uncivilized spectacles. After that, the theatre was abandoned completely. It was probably pillaged by the Visigoths in 412, and like most Roman buildings was certainly stripped of its better stone over the centuries for reuse. It was used as a defensive post in the Middle Ages. During the 16th-century religious wars, it became a refuge for the townspeople.

Construction and Structure of the Theatre

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

The Orange theatre is one of few Roman theatres which still retains the Scaenae frons, at the rear of the stage, though stripped of its elaborate decoration.

Early Roman theatre were mostly constructed from wood and meant to be temporary structures. In 55BC Pompey had a stone theatre built in his home city of Rome, and thereafter grand (and permanent) Roman theatres spread widely.[1] The Orange theatre was created under the rule of Augustus, and is believed to be one of the first of its kind in this area of modern-day France. One of the most iconic parts of this structure is the grand exterior facade, which measures to be 103 meters long and 37 meters high.[2] Originally, there was a wooden roof across the theatre to protect the audience from unfavorable weather conditions. There is evidence on the walls that shows that, at some point, the roof was destroyed in a fire.[2] Although it is relatively sparse in decoration and embellishment, the three story wall gives an overwhelmingly powerful appearance to the entire building. The main three doors on the first level of the facade open directly onto the stage inside the theatre, which can seat from 5,800 up to 7,300 (today, much of the seating has been reconstructed to ensure the safety of tourists and audience members).[2]

The stage, which is 61 meters long and raised about one meter from the ground, is backed by a 37 meter high wall whose height has been preserved completely.[2] This wall is vital to the theatre, as it helped to project sound to the large audience. The wall, also known as the scaenae frons, is the only architecturaly decorated surface throughout the entire theatre. It originally was embellished with marble mosaics of many different colors, multiple columns and friezes, and statues placed in niches.[1] The central niche contains a 3.5 meter high statue of the emperor Augustus, although this was most likely a restoration of an original statue of Apollo, the god of music and the arts.[1] The central door, below the niche containing this statue, is called the Royal Door, or valva regia. This door was used only by the most important, principle actors to enter and exit the stage. Above the door was a frieze decorated with centaurs, which is no longer there but is instead on display across the street in the Orange Museum (unfortunately only remains are left). The stage was covered with a modern platform when the theatre began to be used again for operas and other performances.[2]

Reconstruction

Reconstruction of the Théâtre d’Orange began in 1825 with the intent of returning the theatre to its original purpose: to host large, exciting performances. In 1869, while still in the process of being restored, the theatre hosted “The Roman Festivals”, which brought over 10,000 guests.[citation needed] A very important part of the restoration was excavating the area around the theatre, which occurred in the 1930s. This excavation and leveling of surrounding buildings uncovered many historical objects and artifacts that furthered knowledge about the history and uses of the structure.[1] Today, all three levels of seating have been completely restored, along with many staircases, major parts of the pavement, the stage, the orchestra, and parts of walls.[2]

Current uses of the Theatre

During the Renaissance, around the 12th century, the Théâtre d’Orange was used by the church and play companies to host performances. In the 16th century this tradition stopped once again when the town was sacked during The French Wars of Religion. Much of the population left, and it took until the 19th century for the theatre to be returned to its original purpose. Today, the Théâtre d’Orange is considered the best preserved Roman theatre in all of Europe. It is managed by Culturespaces, an organization that also manages other related cultural sites in the area, such as the Orange Museumand the Triumphal Arch, among other sites in the South of France. This great effort of preservation allows it to be used not just as a historical site but also as a venue for concerts and theatrical performances. The first major festival held in the theatre in 1869 after the restoration began was called “The Roman Festival”. This festival developed into an annual festival called the Chorégies (see below). These decadent, multimedia events attract thousands of visitors from around the world. During the rest of the year, the Théâtre d’Orange is a major tourist attraction. Tourists can walk through the main theatre and surrounding rooms and corridors while being led by an audio guide.

The « Roman Festival » and the Chorégies

A performance at the 2007 Chorégies festival

During the 19th century the theatre slowly began to recover its original splendour, due to the efforts of Prosper Mérimée, who then held the position of director of « Monuments Historiques ». Under his direction, restoration work began in 1825 and in 1869 the theatre became the home of a « Roman Festival » which celebrated the glory of Rome and included a performance of Méhul‘s opera, Joseph. In the latter part of the century, all the major players of the French classical stage appeared in the Orange festivals, including Sarah Bernhardt who played « Phèdre » in 1903.

By the end of the century, the tiered seats were restored, a reflection of the bureaucratic process. In 1902 the festival was given a new name, the « Chorégies, » planned as an annual summer festival. The name comes from the tax that was imposed on wealthy Romans to pay for theatrical productions. Until 1969 the Chorégies consisted of plays, alternating with musical works, opera and symphonies. However, after that date, Orange became solely an opera festival and theatrical works were performed at Avignon.

In 1981 UNESCO declared the theatre as a World Heritage Site.

Gallery

References

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d « Arausio.(Orange).Theatre.Commentary ». http://www.whitman.edu. Retrieved 2015-11-11.
  2. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f « The Roman Theatre of Orange ». Théâtre Antique & Musée d’Orange. Retrieved 2015-11-11.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Theatre_of_Orange

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Archaeological excavation of ancient Aquinum

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 2 octobre 2018
Publié dans: Archaeological excavation of ancient Aquinum, Giacobbe Giusti, Archaeological excavation of ancient Aquinum, Senza categoria. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Archaeological excavation of ancient Aquinum

La testa di Ercole? (repubblica.it)

Giacobbe Giusti, Archaeological excavation of ancient Aquinum

La testa di Giulio Cesare? (repubblica.it)

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Archaeological excavation of ancient Aquinum

Giacobbe Giusti, Archaeological excavation of ancient Aquinum

Monumental inscription and rare mosaic found at Roman Baths of Aquinum

 

https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2016/10/monumental-inscription-and-rare-mosaic.html#BimBbihXTBKuz6lG.97

Scoperta una testa di Giulio Cesare?

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Triumph of Poseidon and Amphitrite showing the couple in procession, detail of a vast mosaic from Cirta, Roman Africa, now at the Louvre)

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 18 septembre 2018
Publié dans: "Triumph of Neptune and Amphitrite", a Roman mosaic from Cirta, now in the Louvre (ca. 315-325 AD), Giacobbe Giusti, Triumph of Poseidon and Amphitrite showing the couple in procession, detail of a vast mosaic from Cirta, Roman Africa, now at the Louvre, Senza categoria, Stewart, John, African states and rulers. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Triumph of Poseidon and Amphitrite showing the couple in procession, detail of a vast mosaic from Cirta, Roman Africa, now at the Louvre

« Triumph of Neptune and Amphitrite« , a Roman mosaic from Cirta, now in the Louvre (ca. 315-325 AD)

Provincia Africa Proconsularis
Province of the Roman Empire
←  146 BC–5th century  →
Location of Africa

The province of Africa within the Roman Empire
Capital Zama Regia, then Carthago
Historical era Antiquity
 • Established after the Third Punic War 146 BC
 • Invasion of the Vandals 5th century
Today part of  Tunisia
 Libya
 Algeria
Part of a series on the
History of Tunisia
Coat of arms of Tunisia.svg
Flag of Tunisia.svg Tunisia portal
Part of a series on the
History of Algeria
Seal of Algeria.svg
Flag of Algeria.svg Algeria portal
Part of a series on the
History of Libya
The emblem on the passport of Libya.svg
Prehistory
Libyco-Berber era pre-146 BC
Roman era to 640 AD
Islamic rule 640–1510
Spanish rule 1510–1530
Order of Saint John 1530–1551
Ottoman rule 1551–1911
Italian occupation 1911–1934
Italian Libya 1934–1943
Allied occupation 1943–1951
Kingdom of Libya 1951–1969
Libyan Arab Republic 1969–1977
Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 1977–1986
Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 1986–2011
First Civil War 2011
National Transitional Council 2011–2012
General National Congress 2012–2014
House of Representatives 2014–present
Second Civil War 2014–present
Government of National Accord 2016–present
Flag of Libya.svg Libya portal

Africa Proconsularis was a Roman province on the northwest African coast that was established in 146 BC following the defeat of Carthage in the Third Punic War. It roughly comprised the territory of present-day Tunisia, the northeast of Algeria, and the coast of western Libyaalong the Gulf of Sirte. The territory was originally inhabited by Berber people, known in Latin as Mauri(English: Moor; Spanish: Moro) indigenous to all of North Africa west of Egypt; in the 9th century BC, Phoenicians built settlements along the Mediterranean Sea to facilitate shipping, of which Carthage rose to dominance in the 8th century until its conquest by the Roman Republic.

It was one of the wealthiest provinces in the western part of the Roman empire, second only to Italia. Apart from the city of Carthage, other large settlements in the province were Hadrumetum (modern Sousse, Tunisia), capital of Byzacena, and Hippo Regius (modern Annaba, Algeria). Besides Latin, the official language, Punic and Berber languages were commonly spoken.

References

  • Lennox Manton, Roman North Africa, 1988.
  • Susan Raven. Rome in Africa. 3rd ed. (London, 1993).
  • Monique Seefried Brouillet, From Hannibal to Saint Augustine: Ancient Art of North Africa from the Musee du Louvre, 1994.
  • A. I. Wilson, Urban Production in the Roman World: The View from North Africa, 2002.
  • Duane R. Roller, The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome’s African Frontier (New York and London, Routledge, 2003).
  • Elizabeth Fentress, « Romanizing the Berbers, » Past & Present, 190,1 (2006), 3-33.
  • Michael Mackensen and Gerwulf Schneider. Production centres of African Red Slip Ware (2nd-3rd c.) in northern and central Tunisia: Archaeological provenance and reference groups based on chemical analysis, 2006.
  • Cordovana, Orietta Dora, Segni e immagini del potere tra antico e tardoantico: I Severi e la provincia Africa proconsularis. Seconda edizione rivista ed aggiornata (Catania: Prisma, 2007) (Testi e studi di storia antica)
  • Dick Whittaker, « Ethnic discourses on the frontiers of Roman Africa », in Ton Derks, Nico Roymans (ed.), Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition (Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2009) (Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, 13), 189-206.
  • Erich S. Gruen, Rethinking the Other in Antiquity (Princeton, PUP, 2010), 197-222.
  • Mennen, Inge, Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193-284 (2011)
  • Stewart, John, African states and rulers (2006)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 13 septembre 2018
Publié dans: Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire, Senza categoria, Sol Invictus, Roman empire, Sol Invictus, Roman empire giacobbe giusti. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire

Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire

Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire

Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire

Mosaic of Sol in Mausoleum M in the Vatican Necropolis[1]

Sol Invictus (« Unconquered Sun ») was the official sun godof the later Roman Empireand a patron of soldiers. On 25 December 274 AD the Roman emperor Aurelianmade it an official cultalongside the traditional Roman cults.[2] Scholars disagree about whether the new deity was a refoundation of the ancient Latin cult of Sol,[3] a revival of the cult of Elagabalus,[4] or completely new.[5] The god was favored by emperors after Aurelian and appeared on their coins until Constantine I.[6] The last inscription referring to Sol Invictus dates to AD 387,[7] and there were enough devotees in the fifth century that the Christian theologian Augustine found it necessary to preach against them.[8]

Invictus as epithet

Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire

Dedication made by a priest of Jupiter Dolichenus on behalf of the well-being (salus) of the emperors, to Sol Invictus and the Genius of the military unit equites singulares Augusti[9]

Invictus(« unconquered, invincible ») was an epithet utilized for several Roman deities, including Jupiter, Mars, Hercules, Apollo, and Silvanus.[10] It had been in use from the 3rd century BC.[11] The Roman cult to Sol is continuous from the « earliest history » of the city until the institution of Christianity as the exclusive state religion. Scholars have sometimes regarded the traditional Sol and Sol Invictus as two separate deities, but the rejection of this view by S. E. Hijmans has found supporters.[12]

An inscription of AD 102 records a restoration of a portico of Sol in what is now the Trastevere area of Rome by a certain Gaius Iulius Anicetus.[13] While he may perhaps have had in mind an allusion to his own cognomen, which is the Latinized form of the Greek equivalent of invictus, ἀνίκητος (aniketos),[14] the earliest extant dated inscription that uses invictus as an epithet of Sol is from AD 158.[15] Another, stylistically dated to the 2nd century, is inscribed on a Roman phalera(ornamental disk): inventori lucis soli invicto augusto (« to the contriver of light, sol invictus augustus »).[dubious – discuss][16][17] Augustus is a regular epithet linking deities to the Imperial cult.[citation needed]

Sol Invictus played a prominent role in the Mithraic mysteries, and was equated with Mithras.[18][19][20] The relation of the Mithraic Sol Invictus to the public cult of the deity with the same name is unclear and perhaps non-existent.[21]

Elagabalus

According to the Historia Augusta, Elagabalus, the teenaged Severan heir, adopted the name of his deity and brought his cult image from Emesa to Rome. Once installed as emperor, he neglected Rome’s traditional State deities and promoted his own as Rome’s most powerful deity. This ended with his murder in 222. The Historia Augusta refers to the deity Elagabalus as « also called Jupiter and Sol » (fuit autem Heliogabali vel Iovis vel Solis).[22] While this has been seen as an attempt to import the Syrian sun god to Rome,[23] the Roman cult of Sol had existed in Rome in the earlier Republic.[24]

Aurelian

Roman Imperial repoussé silverdisc of Sol Invictus (3rd century), found at Pessinus (British Museum)

The Roman gens Aurelia was associated with the cult of Sol.[25] After his victories in the East, the Emperor Aurelian thoroughly reformed the Roman cult of Sol, elevating the sun-god to one of the premier divinities of the Empire. Where previously priests of Sol had been simply sacerdotes and tended to belong to lower ranks of Roman society,[26] they were now pontifices and members of the new college of pontifices instituted by Aurelian. Every pontifex of Sol was a member of the senatorial elite, indicating that the priesthood of Sol was now highly prestigious. Almost all these senators held other priesthoods as well, however, and some of these other priesthoods take precedence in the inscriptions in which they are listed, suggesting that they were considered more prestigious than the priesthood of Sol.[27] Aurelian also built a new temple for Sol, which was dedicated on December 25, 274,[2] and brought the total number of temples for the god in Rome to (at least) four.[28] He also instituted games in honor of the sun god, held every four years from a.d. 274 onwards.

The identity of Aurelian’s Sol Invictus has long been a subject of scholarly debate. Based on the Augustan History, some scholars have argued that it was based on Sol Elagablus (or Elagabla) of Emesa. Others, basing their argument on Zosimus, suggest that it was based on the Šams, the solar god of Palmyra on the grounds that Aurelian placed and consecrated a cult statue of the sun god looted from Palmyra in the temple of Sol Invictus.[29] Professor Gary Forsythe discusses these arguments and adds a third more recent one based on the work of Steven Hijmans. Hijmans argues that Aurelian’s solar deity was simply the traditional Greco-Roman Sol Invictus.[30]

Constantine

Coin of Emperor Constantine Idepicting Sol Invictus with the legend SOLI INVICTO COMITI, c. 315

Emperors portrayed Sol Invictus on their official coinage, with a wide range of legends, only a few of which incorporated the epithet invictus, such as the legend SOLI INVICTO COMITI, claiming the Unconquered Sun as a companion to the Emperor, used with particular frequency by Constantine.[31] Statuettes of Sol Invictus, carried by the standard-bearers, appear in three places in reliefs on the Arch of Constantine. Constantine’s official coinage continues to bear images of Sol until 325/6. A solidus of Constantine as well as a gold medallion from his reign depict the Emperor’s bust in profile twinned (jugate) with Sol Invictus, with the legend INVICTUS CONSTANTINUS[32]

Constantine decreed (March 7, 321) dies Solis—day of the Sun, « Sunday« —as the Roman day of rest (Codex Justinianus 3.12.2):

On the venerable day of the Sun let the magistrates and people residing in cities rest, and let all workshops be closed. In the country however persons engaged in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their pursuits because it often happens that another day is not suitable for grain-sowing or vine planting; lest by neglecting the proper moment for such operations the bounty of heaven should be lost.[33]

Constantine’s triumphal arch was carefully positioned to align with the colossal statue of Sol by the Colosseum, so that Sol formed the dominant backdrop when seen from the direction of the main approach towards the arch.[34]

Sol and the other Roman Emperors

Berrens[35] deals with coin-evidence of Imperial connection to the Solar cult. Sol is depicted sporadically on imperial coins in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, then more frequently from Septimius Severusonwards until AD 325/6. Sol invictus appears on coin legends from AD 261, well before the reign of Aurelian.[36]

Identical reverse as the coin of Constantine I but with Emperor Liciniuson head

Coin of Emperor Probus, c. 280, with Sol Invictus riding a quadriga, with legend SOLI INVICTO, « to the Unconquered Sun »: the Emperor (at left) wears a radiated solar crown, worn also by the god on the obverse

Aurelian in his radiate crown, on a silvered bronze coin struck at Rome, 274–275

Connections between the imperial radiate crown and the cult of Sol are postulated. Augustus was posthumously depicted with radiate crown, as were living emperors from Nero (after AD 65) to Constantine. Some modern scholarship interprets the imperial radiate crown as a divine, solar association rather than an overt symbol of Sol; Bergmann calls it a pseudo-object designed to disguise the divine and solar connotations that would otherwise be politically controversial[37][38] but there is broad agreement that coin-images showing the imperial radiate crown are stylistically distinct from those of the solar crown of rays; the imperial radiate crown is depicted as a real object rather than as symbolic light.[39] Hijmans argues that the Imperial radiate crown represents the honorary wreath awarded to Augustus, perhaps posthumously, to commemorate his victory at the Battle of Actium; he points out that henceforth, living emperors were depicted with radiate crowns, but state divi were not. To Hijmans this implies the radiate crown of living emperors as a link to Augustus. His successors automatically inherited (or sometimes acquired) the same offices and honours due to Octavian as « saviour of the Republic » through his victory at Actium, piously attributed to Apollo-Helios. Wreaths awarded to victors at the Actian Games were radiate.[40]

Festival of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti

The Philocalian calendar of AD 354 gives a festival of « Natalis Invicti » on 25 December. There is limited evidence that this festival was celebrated before the mid-4th century.[41][42] Whether this date was intended to celebrate solstice is doubtful; one scholar writes that « the cult of the Sun in pagan Rome ironically did not celebrate the winter solstice nor any of the other quarter-tense days, as one might expect. »[43]« .

Since the 12th century[44] there have been speculations that the near-solstice date of 25 December for Christmas was selected because it was the date of the festival of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, but this has been contested by The Calculation Hypothesis through the writings of the Early Christian Fathers. For example, Hippolytus of Rome, between 202 and 211 AD, said in his commentary of the Book of Daniel that the Birth of Jesus is December 25th[45], though this passage is generally considered a late interpolation[by whom?]. The manuscript includes another passage, one that is more likely to be authentic, that gives the passion as March 25.[46]

Legacy

Christianity

The halo of Jesus has similarities to a parhelion or a sun cross.

According to one hypothesis about Christmas, it was set to 25 December because it was the date of the festival of Sol Invictus. This idea became popular especially in the 18th[47][48] and 19th centuries.[49][50][51]

The charioteer in the mosaic of Mausoleum M has been interpreted by some as Christ. Clement of Alexandria had spoken of Christ driving his chariot across the sky.[52]This interpretation is doubted by others: « Only the cross-shapednimbus makes the Christian significance apparent. »[53] and the figure is seen by some simply as a representation of the Sun with no explicit religious reference whatever, pagan or Christian.[54]

Judaism

Mosaic in the Beth Alphasynagogue, with the Sun in the centre, surrounded by the twelve zodiac constellations and with the four seasons associated inaccurately with the constellations

The traditional image of the Sun has also been used in early Jewish art. A mosaic floor in Hamat Tiberiaspresents David as Helios surrounded by a ring with the signs of the zodiac.[55] As well as in Hamat Tiberias, figures of Helios or Sol Invictus also appear in several of the very few surviving schemes of decoration surviving from Late Antique synagogues, including Beth Alpha, Husefa, all now in Israel, and Naaranin the West Bank. He is shown in floor mosaics, with the usual radiate halo, and sometimes in a quadriga, in the central roundel of a circular representation of the zodiac or the seasons. These combinations « may have represented to an agricultural Jewish community the perpetuation of the annual cycle of the universe or … the central part of a calendar ».[56]

Notes

  1. Jump up^ « Archived copy ». Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-08-25.
  2. ^ Jump up to:a b Manfred Clauss, Die römischen Kaiser – 55 historische Portraits von Caesar bis Iustinian, ISBN 978-3-406-47288-6, p. 250
  3. Jump up^ See S. E. Hijmans, « The sun that did not rise in the east », Babesch 71 (1996) p.115–150
  4. Jump up^ See Gaston Halsberghe, « The cult of Sol Invictus », Leiden: Brill, 1972
  5. Jump up^ As Hijmans states (p.115): « Scholars have consistently postulated a clear distinction between the Republican Sol Indiges and the Imperial Sol Invictus. » and p.116 « We should keep in mind, however, that most scholars agree that this cult [Sol Indiges] was never important, and that it had disappeared altogether by the beginning of the second century AD »
  6. Jump up^ Halsberghe, « The cult of Sol Invictus », p.155: « Up to the conversion of Constantine the Great, the cult of Deus Sol Invictus received the full support of the emperors. The many coins showing the sun god that these emperors struck provide official evidence of this. » and p.169 « the custom of representing Deus Sol Invictus on coins came to an end in AD 323. »
  7. Jump up^ Halsberghe, « The cult of Sol Invictus », p.170 n.3: « CIL VI, 1778, dates from AD 387, »
  8. Jump up^ Halsberghe, p.170, n.4: « Augustine, Sermones, XII; also in Ennaratio in Psalmum XXV; Ennaratio II, 3. »
  9. Jump up^ CIL VI.31181.
  10. Jump up^ Hijmans, S. E. (2009). « The sun which did not rise in the east », p. 124.
  11. Jump up^ Hijmans, Steven Ernst. (2009). Sol: The Sun in the Art and Religions of Rome (diss., University of Groningen 2009), p. 18, with citations from the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
  12. Jump up^ Hijmans (2009, pp. Chapter 1) (a reworking of Hijmans, 1996; Matern, 2001; Wallraff, 2002; and Berrens, 2004; all follow Hijmans.
  13. Jump up^ (Hijmans 2009, pp. 483–508 (Chapter 5))
  14. Jump up^ (Hijmans, 2009, 486, footnote 22)
  15. Jump up^ CIL VI, 715: Soli Invicto deo / ex voto suscepto / accepta missione / honesta ex nume/ro eq(uitum) sing(ularium) Aug(usti) P(ublius) / Aelius Amandus / d(e)d(icavit) Tertullo et / Sacerdoti co(n)s(ulibus)« Archived copy ». Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2009-11-12. (Publius Aelius Amandus dedicated this to the god Sol Invictus in accordance with the vow he had made, upon his honorable discharge from the equestrian guard of the emperor, during the consulship of Tertullus and Sacerdos); see: Campbell, J. (1994). The Roman army, 31 BC–AD 337: a sourcebook, p. 43; Halsberghe 1972, p. 45.[1]
  16. Jump up^ Guarducci, M. (1957/1959). Sol invictus Augustus. Rendiconti della Pont, 3rd series 30/31, pp. 161 ff. Accademia Romana di Archeologia
  17. Jump up^ An illustration is provided in Kantorowicz, E. H. (1961). Gods in Uniform, 368–393, 383, fig. 34 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 105(4), (August 1961).
  18. Jump up^ Ulansey, David. (1989). The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries, p. 107. Oxford University Press.
  19. Jump up^ Salzman, Michele Renee. (2004). Pagan and Christian Notions of the Week in the 4th Century CE Western Roman Empire In Time and Temporality in the Ancient World, p. 192. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
  20. Jump up^ Alvar, Jaime, tr. Gordon, Richard (2008). Romanising Oriental Gods: Myth, Salvation, and Ethics in the Cults of Cybele, Isis, and Mithras, p. 100. Brill.
  21. Jump up^ (Alvar, 2008, p. 203)
  22. Jump up^ Historia Augusta, 1, 5: English translation (Loeb) from Thayer [2] & Latin text [3]
  23. Jump up^ See in particular Halsberghe 1972.
  24. Jump up^ Hijmans 1996, Matern 2001, Wallraff 2002, Berrens 2004, Hijmans (2009)).
  25. Jump up^ J.C. Richard, « Le culte de Sol et les Aurelii: À propos de Paul Fest. p. 22 L. », in Mélanges offerts à Jacques Heurgon: L’Italie préromaine et la Rome républicaine (Rome, 1976), 915–925.
  26. Jump up^ (Hijmans 2009, pp. 504–5)
  27. Jump up^ For a full list of the pontifices of Sol see J. Rupke (ed.), Fasti Sacerdotum (2005), p. 606. Memmius Vitrasius Orfitus lists his priesthoods as pontifex of Vesta, one of the quindecimviri sacris faciundis, and pontifex of Sol, in that order (Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum vol. 6, 1739–1742). In a list of eight priesthoods, Vettius Agorius Praetextatus puts Pontifex Solis in third place (CIL VI, 1779).
  28. Jump up^ The other three were in the Circus Maximus, on the Quirinal, and in Trastevere. (Hijmans 2009, chapter 5)
  29. Jump up^ Dirven, Lucinda (1999). The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria. BRILL. p. 169. ISBN 978-9004115897. Archived from the original on 2015-12-08.
  30. Jump up^ Forsythe, Gary (2012). Time in Roman Religion: One Thousand Years of Religious History. Routledge. pp. 142–143. ISBN 978-0415522175.
  31. Jump up^ A comprehensive discussion of all sol-coinage and sol-legends per emperor from Septimius Severus to Constantine can be found in Berrens (2004).
  32. Jump up^ The medal is illustrated in Jocelyn M.C. Toynbee, Roman Medallions(1944, reprinted 1987) plate xvii, no. 11; the solidus is illustrated in J. Maurice, Numismatique Constantinienne vol. II, p. 236, plate vii, no. 14
  33. Jump up^ Excellent discussion of this decree by Wallraff 2002, 96–102.
  34. Jump up^ E. Marlowe, « Framing the sun. The Arch of Constantine and the Roman cityscape », Art Bulletin 88 (2006) 223–242.
  35. Jump up^ S. Berrens, Sonnenkult und Kaisertum von den Severern bis zu Constantin I. (193–337 n. Chr.) Stuttgart: Steiner 2004 (Historia-Einzelschriften 185).
  36. Jump up^ Berrens 2004, precise p. number to follow. The coinage Elagabalus does not use invictus for Roman Sol, nor the Emesan Solar deity Elagabalus.
  37. Jump up^ Bergmann 1998, 121–123
  38. Jump up^ S. Hijmans, « Metaphor, Symbol and Reality: the Polysemy of the Imperial Radiate Crown », in: C. C. Mattusch (ed.), Common ground. Archaeology, art, science, and humanities. Proceedings of the XVIth International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Boston, August 23–26, 2003, Oxford (2006), 440–443; (Hijmans 2009, pp. 80–84, 509–548)
  39. Jump up^ Bergmann 1998, 116–117; Hijmans 2009, 82–83.
  40. Jump up^ Hijmans 2009, 509–548. A mosaic floor in the Baths of the Porta Marina at Ostia depicts a radiate victory crown on a table as well as a victorious competitor wearing one.« Archived copy ». Archived from the original on 2008-11-09. Retrieved 2009-11-12.
  41. Jump up^ Wallraff 2001: 174–177. Hoey (1939: 480) writes: « An inscription of unique interest from the reign of Licinius embodies the official prescription for the annual celebration by his army of a festival of Sol Invictus on December 19 ». The inscription (Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 8940) actually prescribes an annual offering to Sol on November 18 (die XIV Kal(endis) Decemb(ribus), i.e., on the fourteenth day before the Kalends of December).
  42. Jump up^ Text at [4] Archived 2007-12-04 at the Wayback Machine. Parts 6 and 12 respectively.
  43. Jump up^ Michael Alan Anderson, Symbols of Saints (ProQuest 2008 ISBN 978-0-54956551-2), pp. 45-46
  44. Jump up^ Bishop Jacob Bar-Salabi (cited in Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, Ramsay MacMullen. Yale:1997, p. 155)
  45. Jump up^ http://www.dec25th.info/Textual[permanent dead link] Tradition of Hippolytus Commentary on Daniel.html
  46. Jump up^ Towards the Origins of Christmas, Roll, S. (1995), p. 87
  47. Jump up^ Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, Researches Into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom, Volume 2, p. 270; John Murray, London, 1871; revised edition 1889.
  48. Jump up^ Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Volume 3, 1885, T and T Clark, Edinburgh, page 396; see also Volume 4 in the 3rd edition, 1910 (Charles Scribner’s Sons, NY).
  49. Jump up^ Anderson, Michael Alan (2008). Symbols of Saints. ProQuest. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-54956551-2.
  50. Jump up^ « The Day God Took Flesh ». Melkite Eparchy of Newton of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church. 25 March 2012. Archived from the original on 23 December 2014.
  51. Jump up^ Wikisource-logo.svg Martindale, Cyril (1913). « Christmas« . In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  52. Jump up^ Webb, Matilda (2001). The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome. Sussex Academic Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-90221058-2.
  53. Jump up^ Kemp, Martin (2000). The Oxford History of Western Art. Oxford University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-19860012-1., emphasis added
  54. Jump up^ Hijmans 2009, p. 567-578.
  55. Jump up^ David R. Cartlidge, James Keith Elliott, The Art of Christian Legend(Routledge 2001 ISBN 978-0-41523392-7), p. 64
  56. Jump up^ Weitzmann, pp. 370, 375

Bibliography

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_Invictus

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com