Giacobbe Giusti, GIAMPIETRINO: Magdalena Penitente, Hermitage

Giacobbe Giusti, GIAMPIETRINO: Magdalena Penitente, Hermitage

 

 

Bibliography[

• Bock, Darrell L. (2004), Breaking The Da Vinci Code, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, pp. 143–144, ISBN 978-1-4185-1338-2
• Bradshaw, Peter (February 27, 2018), « Mary Magdalene review – toothless attempt to overturn Sunday school myths: Rooney Mara brings her customary intensity to the title role as Jesus’ ‘favourite pupil’, but the result is a bit too solemn to be a convincing reinvention », The Guardian
• Campbell, Lorne (2009), « The New Pictorial Language of Rogier van der Weyden », in Campbell, Lorne; Van der Stock, Jan, Rogier Van Der Weyden: 1400-1464 : Master of Passions, Eugene, Oregon: Wipf & Stock, pp. 2–64, ISBN 9789085261056
• Carr, Flora (March 30, 2018), « The Real Reason Why Mary Magdalene Is Such a Controversial Figure », TIME
• Casey, Maurice (2010), Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian’s Account of His Life and Teaching, New York City, New York and London, England: T & T Clark, ISBN 978-0-567-64517-3
• Crossan, John Dominic (1995), Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography, San Francisco, California: HarperOne, ISBN 0-06-061662-8
• « Life of Mary Magdalen », William Caxton‘s English version of the Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine
• Chilton, Bruce (2005), Mary Magdalene: A Biography, New York City, New York, London, England, Toronto, Ontario, Sydney, Australia, and Auckland, New Zealand: Image Doubleday, ISBN 978-0-385-51318-0
• Dalton, Stephen (February 27, 2018), « Mary Magdalene: Film Review », The Hollywood Reporter
• DeConick, April D. (2011), Holy Misogyny: Why the Sex and Gender Conflicts in the Early Church Still Matter, New York City, New York and London, England: Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-4411-9602-6
• Ehrman, Bart D. (2004), Truth and Fiction in The Da Vinci Code: A Historian Reveals What We Really Know about Jesus, Mary Magdalene, and Constantine, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-518140-9
• Ehrman, Bart D. (2006), Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-530013-0
• Ehrman, Bart D. (2014), How Jesus Became God: The Exaltation of a Jewish Preacher from Galilee, New York City, New York: HarperOne, ISBN 978-0-06-177818-6
• Erhardt, Michelle; Morris, Amy (2012), « Introduction », Mary Magdalene: Iconographic Studies from the Middle Ages to the Baroque, Studies in Religion and the Arts, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-23224-2
• Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], « St. Mary Magdalene », Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 134–135
• Foss, Clive (1979), Ephesus After Antiquity: A Late Antique, Byzantine and Turkish City, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-22086-6
• Geneva Press (2008), The Presbyterian Handbook for Pastors, Louiseville, Kentucky: Geneva Press, ISBN 978-0-664-50299-7
• Green, Mary E. (2014), « Mary Magdalene, the Myrrh Bearer », Eyes to See: The Redemptive Purpose of Icons, New York City, New York, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and Denver Colorado: Morehouse Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8192-2939-7
• Haag, Michael (2016), The Quest For Mary Magdalene: History & Legend, London, England: Profile Books, ISBN 978-1847659385
• Hailes, Sam (March 6, 2018), « Why Mary Magdalene is the Hollywood film Christians have been waiting for: This new movie paints a clear picture of Jesus, says Sam Hailes », Premiere Christianity
• Haskins, Susan (2005) [1993], Mary Magdalen: Myth and Metaphor, New York City, New York: Pimplico, ISBN 1-8459-5004-6
• Herzog, William R. (2005), Prophet and Teacher: An Introduction to the Historical Jesus, Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster Knox Press, ISBN 0-664-22528-4
• Hinkle, Mary (2003) [1986], « Mary Magdalene », in Fahlbusch, Erwin; Lochman, Jan Milič; Mbiti, John; Pelikan, Jaroslav; Vischer, Lukas; Bromiley, Geoffrey W.; Barrett, David B., The Encyclopedia of Christianity, J-O, 3, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Cambridge, England, Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston, Massachusetts: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company and Brill, pp. 446–448, ISBN 0-8028-2415-3
• Johnston, Barbara, « Sacred Kingship and Royal Patronage in the La Vie de la Magdalene: Pilgrimage, Politics, Passion Plays, and the Life of Louise of Savoy » (Florida State), R. Neuman, Dissertation, PDF, 88–93
• Jones, Roger; Penny, Nicholas (1983), Raphael, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0300040524
• Kelly, Henry Ansgar (2006), Satan: A Biography, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521604024
• Kim, Young Richard (2015), Epiphanius of Cyprus: Imagining an Orthodox World, Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, pp. 37–39, ISBN 978-0-472-11954-7
• King, Ross (2012), Leonardo and the Last Supper, New York City, New York and London, England: Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-0-7475-9947-0
• Kugelmann, Robert (1983), The Windows of Soul: Psychological Physiology of the Human Eye and Primary Glaucoma, London, England and Toronto, Canada: Associated University Presses, ISBN 0-8387-5035-4
• Lang, J. Stephen (2003), What the Good Book Didn’t Say: Popular Myths and Misconceptions About the Bible, New York City New York: Citadel Press, ISBN 0-8065-2460-X
• Levine, Amy-Jill; Allison, Dale C. Jr.; Crossan, John Dominic (October 16, 2006), The Historical Jesus in Context, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-00992-9
• Maisch, Ingrid (1998) [1996], Mary Magdalene: The Image of a Woman through the Centuries, translated by Maloney, Linda M., Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Presss, ISBN 0-8146-2471-5
• Powell, Mark Allen (1998), Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee, Louiseville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, p. 168, ISBN 978-0-664-25703-3
• Pringle, Denys (1998), « Magdala », The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Corpus, II: L-Z (excluding Tyre), Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39037-0
• Roper, Lyndal (2016), Martin Luther: Renegade and Prophet, New York City, New York: Random House, ISBN 9780812996203
• Sabar, Ariel (2016), « The Scholar Who Discovered the ‘Jesus’s Wife’ Fragment Now Says It’s Likely a Fake », The Atlantic
• Sanders, E. P. (1993), The Historical Figure of Jesus, London, England, New York City, New York, Ringwood, Australia, Toronto, Ontario, and Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-014499-4
• Schaberg, Jane (2004) [2002], The Resurrection of Mary Magdalene: Legends, Apocrypha, and the Christian Testament, New York City, New York and London, England: Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 0-8264-1645-4
• Strong, Steven; Strong, Evan (2008), Mary Magdalene’s Dreaming: A Comparison of Aboriginal Wisdom and Gnostic Scripture, Lanham, Maryland, Boulder, Colorado, New York City, New York, Toronto, Ontario, and Plymouth, England: University Press of America, ISBN 978-0-7618-4281-1
• Wilson, Kenneth (2011), Methodist Theology, Doing Theology, London, England and New York City, New York: Bloomsbury T & T Clark, ISBN 978-0-5670-8135-3
• Witcombe, Christopher L. C. E. (June 2002), « The Chapel of the Courtesan and the Quarrel of the Magdalens », The Art Bulletin, New York City, New York: College Art Association, 84 (2): 273–292, doi:10.2307/3177269, JSTOR 3177269
• Wright, N. T. (March 1, 2003), The Resurrection of the Son of God, Christian Origins and the Question of God, 3, Eugene, Oregon: Fortress Press, ISBN 978-0800626792

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Magdalene

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

Roca dels Moros, Spain, The Dance of Cogul, tracing by Henri Breuil

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

The Shigir Idol

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

Reconstruction of a « temporary » house in Ireland; waterside sites offered good food resources.

The Mesolithic This box: view talk edit
↑ Upper Paleolithic
Mesolithic Europe Fosna–Hensbacka culture Komsa culture Maglemosian culture Lepenski Vir culture Kunda culture Narva culture Komornica culture Swiderian culture Epipaleolithic Transylvania Mesolithic Transylvania Tardenoisian Schela Cladovei culture Mesolithic Southeastern Europe Epipaleolithic (Levant) Levantine corridor Natufian Khiamian Caucasus Trialetian Zagros Zarzian culture
↓ Neolithic

In Old World archaeology, Mesolithic(Greek: μέσος, mesos « middle »; λίθος, lithos« stone ») is the period between the Upper Paleolithic and the Neolithic. The term Epipaleolithic is often used synonymously, especially for outside northern Europe, and for the corresponding period in the Levantand Caucasus. The Mesolithic has different time spans in different parts of Eurasia. It refers to the final period of hunter-gatherercultures in Europe and West Asia, between the end of the Last Glacial Maximum and the Neolithic Revolution. In Europe it spans roughly 15,000 to 5,000 BP, in Southwest Asia (the Epipalaeolithic Near East) roughly 20,000 to 8,000 BP. The term is less used of areas further east, and not all beyond Eurasia and North Africa.

The type of culture associated with the Mesolithic varies between areas, but it is associated with a decline in the group hunting of large animals in favour of a broader hunter-gatherer way of life, and the development of more sophisticated and typically smaller lithic tools and weapons than the heavy chipped equivalents typical of the Paleolithic. Depending on the region, some use of pottery and textiles may be found in sites allocated to the Mesolithic, but generally indications of agriculture are taken as marking transition into the Neolithic. The more permanent settlements tend to be close to the sea or inland waters offering a good supply of food. Mesolithic societies are not seen as very complex, and burials are fairly simple; grandiose burial mounds are another mark of the Neolithic.

Terminology

 Three-age_system § Stone_Age_subdivisions

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

Mesolithic microliths

The terms « Paleolithic » and « Neolithic » were introduced by John Lubbock in his work Pre-historic Times in 1865. The additional « Mesolithic » category was added as an intermediate category by Hodder Westropp in 1866. Westropp’s suggestion was immediately controversial. A British school led by John Evans denied any need for an intermediate: the ages blended together like the colors of a rainbow, he said. A European school led by Louis Laurent Gabriel de Mortillet asserted that there was a gap between the earlier and later.

Edouard Piette claimed to have filled the gap with his naming of the Azilian Culture. Knut Stjerna offered an alternative in the « Epipaleolithic », suggesting a final phase of the Paleolithic rather than an intermediate age in its own right inserted between the Paleolithic and Neolithic.

By the time of Vere Gordon Childe‘s work, The Dawn of Europe (1947), which affirms the Mesolithic, sufficient data had been collected to determine that a transitional period between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic was indeed a useful concept.^[1]However, the terms « Mesolithic » and « Epipalaeolitic » remain in competition, with varying conventions of usage. In the archaeology of Northern Europe, for example for archaeological sites in Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavia, Ukraine, and Russia, the term « Mesolithic » is almost always used. In the archaeology of other areas, the term « Epipaleolithic » may be preferred by most authors, or there may be divergences between authors over which term to use or what meaning to assign to each. In the New World, neither term is used (except provisionally in the Arctic).

« Epipaleolithic » is sometimes also used alongside « Mesolithic » for the final end of the Upper Paleolithic immediately followed by the Mesolithic.^[2] As « Mesolithic » suggests an intermediate period, followed by the Neolithic, some authors prefer the term « Epipaleolithic » for hunter-gatherer cultures who are not succeeded by agricultural traditions, reserving « Mesolithic » for cultures who are clearly succeeded by the Neolithic Revolution, such as the Natufian culture. Other authors use « Mesolithic » as a generic term for post-LGM hunter-gatherer cultures, whether they are transitional towards agriculture or not. In addition, terminology appears to differ between archaeological sub-disciplines, with « Mesolithic » being widely used in European archaeology, while « Epipalaeolithic » is more common in Near Eastern archaeology.

Europe

The Shigir Idol

Two skeletons of women aged between 25 and 35 years, dated between 6740 and 5680 BP, both of whom died a violent death. Found at Téviec, France in 1938.

Further information: Prehistoric_Europe § Mesolithic

The Mesolithic began with the Holocene warm period around 11,660 BP and ended with the introduction of farming, the date of which varied in each geographical region. Regions that experienced greater environmental effects as the last glacial period ended have a much more apparent Mesolithic era, lasting millennia.^[3] In northern Europe, for example, societies were able to live well on rich food supplies from the marshlands created by the warmer climate. Such conditions produced distinctive human behaviors that are preserved in the material record, such as the Maglemosian and Azilian cultures. Such conditions also delayed the coming of the Neolithic until as late as 5000–4000 BCE in northern Europe.

Animated image showing the sequence of engravings on a pendant excavated from the Mesolithic archaeological site of Starr Carr in 2015^[4]

The type of stone toolkit remains one of the most diagnostic features: the Mesolithic used a microlithic technology – composite devices manufactured with Mode V chipped stone tools (microliths), while the Paleolithic had utilized Modes I–IV. In some areas, however, such as Ireland, parts of Portugal, the Isle of Man and the Tyrrhenian Islands, a macrolithic technology was used in the Mesolithic.^[5] In the Neolithic, the microlithic technology was replaced by a macrolithic technology, with an increased use of polished stone tools such as stone axes.

There is some evidence for the beginning of construction at sites with a ritual or astronomical significance, including Stonehenge, with a short row of large post holes aligned east-west, and a possible « lunar calendar » at Warren Field in Scotland, with pits of post holes of varying sizes, thought to reflect the lunar phases. Both are dated to around 8,000 BCE.^[6]

As the « Neolithic package » (including farming, herding, polished stone axes, timber longhouses and pottery) spread into Europe, the Mesolithic way of life was marginalized and eventually disappeared. Mesolithic adaptations such as sedentism, population size and use of plant foods are cited as evidence of the transition to agriculture.^[7] In one sample from the Blätterhöhle in Hagen, it seems that the descendants of Mesolithic people maintained a foraging lifestyle for more than 2000 years after the arrival of farming societies in the area;^[8] such societies may be called « Subneolithic« . In north-Eastern Europe, the hunting and fishing lifestyle continued into the Medieval period in regions less suited to agriculture, and in Scandinavia no Mesolithic period may be accepted, with the locally preferred « Older Stone Age » moving into the « Younger Stone Age ».^[9]

Art

Roca dels Moros, Spain, The Dance of Cogul, tracing by Henri Breuil

Compared to the preceding Upper Paleolithic and the following Neolithic, there is rather less surviving art from the Mesolithic. The Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin, which probably spreads across from the Upper Paleolithic, is a widespread phenomenon, much less well known than the cave-paintings of the Upper Paleolithic, with which it makes an interesting contrast. The sites are now mostly cliff faces in the open air, and the subjects are now mostly human rather than animal, with large groups of small figures; there are 45 figures at Roca dels Moros. Clothing is shown, and scenes of dancing, fighting, hunting and food-gathering. The figures are much smaller than the animals of Paleolithic art, and depicted much more schematically, though often in energetic poses.^[10] A few small engraved pendants with suspension holes and simple engraved designs are known, some from northern Europe in amber, and one from Starr Carr in Britain in shale.^[11] The Elk’s Head of Huittinen is a rare Mesolithic animal carving in soapstone from Finland.

The rock art in the Urals appears to show similar changes after the Paleolithic, and the wooden Shigir Idol is a rare survival of what may well have been a very common material for sculpture. It is a plank of larch carved with geometric motifs, but topped with a human head. Now in fragments, it would apparently have been over 5 metres tall when made.^[12] The Ain Sakhri Lovers from modern Israel, are a Natufian carving in calcite.

Ceramic Mesolithic

In North-Eastern Europe, Siberia, and certain southern European and North African sites, a « ceramic Mesolithic » can be distinguished between 7000-3850 BCE. Russian archaeologists prefer to describe such pottery-making cultures as Neolithic, even though farming is absent. This pottery-making Mesolithic culture can be found peripheral to the sedentary Neolithic cultures. It created a distinctive type of pottery, with point or knob base and flared rims, manufactured by methods not used by the Neolithic farmers. Though each area of Mesolithic ceramic developed an individual style, common features suggest a single point of origin.^{[13][citation needed]} The earliest manifestation of this type of pottery may be in the region around Lake Baikal in Siberia. It appears in the Elshan or Yelshanka or Samara culture on the Volga in Russia c. 7000 BCE,^[14][15] and from there spread via the Dnieper-Donets culture to the Narva culture of the Eastern Baltic. Spreading westward along the coastline it is found in the Ertebølle culture of Denmark and Ellerbek of Northern Germany, and the related Swifterbant culture of the Low Countries.^[16]

^[17]

Cultures

Geographical range	Periodization	Culture	Temporal range	Notable sites
Southeastern Europe (Greece, Aegean)	Balkan Mesolithic		15,000–7,000 BP	Franchthi, Theopetra[18]
Southeastern Europe(Romania/Serbia)	Balkan Mesolithic	Iron Gates culture	13,000–5,000 BP	Lepenski Vir[19]
Western Europe	Early Mesolithic	Azilian	14,000–10,000 BP
Northern Europe (Norway)		Fosna-Hensbacka culture	12,000–10,500 BP
Northern Europe (Norway)	Early Mesolithic	Komsa culture	12,000–10,000 BP
Central Asia (Middle Urals)			12,000–5,000 BP	Shigir Idol, Vtoraya Beregovaya[20]
Northeastern Europe (Balticsand Russia)	Middle Mesolithic	Kunda culture	10,500–7,000 BP	Lammasmägi, Pulli settlement
Northern Europe		Maglemosian culture	11,000–8,000 BP
Western and Central Europe		Sauveterrian culture	10,500–8,500 BP
Western Europe (Great Britain)	British Mesolithic		11,000–5,500 BP	Star Carr, Howick house, Gough’s Cave, Cramond, Aveline’s Hole
Western Europe (Ireland)	Irish Mesolithic		11,000–5,500 BP	Mount Sandel
Western Europe (Belgium and France)		Tardenoisian culture	10,000–5,000 BP
Eastern Europe (Belarus, Lithuania and Poland)	Late Mesolithic	Neman culture	9,000–5,000 BP
Northern Europe (Scandinavia)		Nøstvet and Lihult cultures	8,200-5,200 BP
Northern Europe (Scandinavia)		Kongemose culture	8,000–7,200 BP
Northern Europe (Scandinavia)	Late Mesolithic	Ertebølle	7,300– 5,900 BP
Western Europe (Netherlands)	Late Mesolithic	Swifterbant	7,300–5,400 BP

Near East

Main article: Epipaleolithic Near East

Further information: Zarzian culture

The first period, known as Mesolithic 1 (Kebarian culture; from 20,000–18,000 BCE until 12,150 BCE), followed the Aurignacian or Levantine Upper Paleolithic periods throughout the Levant. By the end of the Aurignacian, gradual changes took place in stone industries. Small stone tools called microliths and retouched bladelets can be found for the first time. The microliths of this culture period differ greatly from the Aurignacian artifacts. This period is more properly called Epipaleolithic.

By 20,000–18,000 BCE the climate and environment had changed, starting a period of transition. The Levant became more arid and the forest vegetation retreated, to be replaced by steppe. The cool and dry period ended at the beginning of Mesolithic 1. The hunter-gatherers of the Aurignacian would have had to modify their way of living and their pattern of settlement to adapt to the changing conditions. The crystallization of these new patterns resulted in Mesolithic 1. New types of settlements and new stone industries developed.

The inhabitants of a small Mesolithic 1 site in the Levant left little more than their chipped stone tools behind. The industry was of small tools made of bladelets struck off single-platform cores. Besides bladelets, burins and end-scrapers were found. A few bone tools and some ground stone have also been found. These so-called Mesolithic sites of Asia are far less numerous than those of the Neolithic and the archeological remains are very poor. The second period, Mesolithic 2, is also called the Natufian culture. The change from Mesolithic 1 to Natufian culture can be dated more closely. The latest date from a Mesolithic 1 site in the Levant is 12,150 BCE. The earliest date from a Natufian site is 11,140 BCE.^{[citation needed]} This period is characterized by the early rise of agriculture that would later emerge into the Neolithic period. Radiocarbon dating places the Natufian culture between 12,500 and 9500 BCE, just before the end of the Pleistocene.^[21] This period is characterised by the beginning of agriculture.^[22] The earliest known battle occurred during the Mesolithic period at a site in Sudan known as Cemetery 117.

Natufian culture is commonly split into two subperiods: Early Natufian (12,500–10,800 BCE) (Christopher Delage gives c. 13,000–11,500 BP uncalibrated, equivalent to c. 13,700–11,500 BCE)^[23] and Late Natufian (10,800–9500 BCE). The Late Natufian most likely occurred in tandem with the Younger Dryas. The following period is often called the Pre-Pottery Neolithic; in the Levant, unlike elsewhere, « Mesolithic pottery » is not talked of.

Geographical range	Periodization	Culture	Temporal range	Notable sites
North Africa (Morocco)	Late Upper Paleolithic to Early Mesolithic	Iberomaurusian culture	24,000–10,000 BP
Southwest Asia(Caucasus, Iran)	Late Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic	Zarzian culture	20,000–10,000 BP
Levant	Early Epipaleolithic	Kebaran	19,000–14,500 BP
Caucasus	Epipaleolithic	Trialetian	16,000–8,000 BP
Levant	Late Epipaleolithic	Natufian culture	14,500–11,500 BP
Levant (Israel)	Late Epipaleolithic	Harifian culture(Late Natufian)	10,800–10,000 BP
North Africa		Capsian culture	12,000–8,000 BP

« Mesolithic » outside of Western Eurasia

While Paleolithic and Neolithic have been found useful terms and concepts in the archaeology of China, and can be mostly regarded as happily naturalized, Mesolithic was introduced later, mostly after 1945, and does not appear to be a necessary or useful term in the context of China. Chinese sites that have been regarded as Mesolithic are better considered as « Early Neolithic ».^[24]

In the archaeology of India, the Mesolithic, dated roughly between 12,000 and 8,000 BP, remains a concept in use.^[25]

In the archaeology of the Americas, an Archaic or Meso-Indian period, following the Lithic stage, somewhat equates to the Mesolithic.

Geographical range	Periodization	Culture	Temporal range	Notable sites
North Africa (Morocco)	Late Upper Paleolithic to Early Mesolithic	Iberomaurusian culture	24,000–10,000 BP
North Africa		Capsian culture	12,000–8,000 BP
Central Asia (Middle Urals)			12,000–5,000 BP	Shigir Idol, Vtoraya Beregovaya[26]
East Asia (Japan)	Jōmon cultures		16,000–1,350 BP
East Asia (Korea)	Jeulmun pottery period		10,000–3,500 BP
South Asia (India)	South Asian Stone Age		12,000–4000 BP[27]	Bhimbetka rock shelters

Mesolithic.

• Holocene
• Hunter-gatherer
• Caucasian Hunter-Gatherer
• Western Hunter-Gatherer
• List of Stone Age art
• Younger Dryas
• Mammoth extinction
• History_of_archery#Prehistory

References

1. Jump up^ Linder, F. (1997). Social differentiering i mesolitiska jägar-samlarsamhällen. Uppsala.: Institutionen för arkeologi och antik historia, Uppsala universitet.
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3. Jump up^ Conneller, Chantal; Bayliss, Alex; Milner, Nicky; Taylor, Barry (2016). « The Resettlement of the British Landscape: Towards a chronology of Early Mesolithic lithic assemblage types ». Internet Archaeology. 42. doi:10.11141/ia.42.12.
4. Jump up^ Morgan, C.; Scholma-Mason, N. (2017). « Animated GIFs as Expressive Visual Narratives and Expository Devices in Archaeology ». Internet Archaeology (44). doi:10.11141/ia.44.11.
5. Jump up^ Driscoll, Killian (2006). The early prehistory in the west of Ireland: Investigations into the social archaeology of the Mesolithic, west of the Shannon, Ireland.
6. Jump up^ V. Gaffney; et al. « Time and a Place: A luni-solar ‘time-reckoner’ from 8th millennium BC Scotland ». Internet Archaeology. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
7. Jump up^ Price, Douglas, ed. (2000). Europe’s first farmers. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN0521665728.
8. Jump up^ Bollongino, R.; Nehlich, O.; Richards, M. P.; Orschiedt, J.; Thomas, M. G.; Sell, C.; Fajkosova, Z.; Powell, A.; Burger, J. (2013). « 2000 Years of Parallel Societies in Stone Age Central Europe » (PDF). Science. 342 (6157): 479–481. doi:10.1126/science.1245049.
9. Jump up^ Bailey, Geoff and Spikins, Penny, Mesolithic Europe, p. 4, 2008, Cambridge University Press, ISBN0521855039, 9780521855037
10. Jump up^ Sandars, Nancy K., Prehistoric Art in Europe, Penguin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), pp. 87-96, 1968 (nb 1st edn.)
11. Jump up^ « 11,000 year old pendant is earliest known Mesolithic art in Britain », University of York
12. Jump up^ Geggel, Laura (25 April 2018). « This Eerie, Human-Like Figure Is Twice As Old As Egypt’s Pyramids ». Live Science. Retrieved 28 April 2018.
13. Jump up^ De Roevers, p.162-163
14. Jump up^ Anthony, D.W. (2007). « Pontic-Caspian Mesolithic and Early Neolithic societies at the time of the Black Sea Flood: a small audience and small effects ». In Yanko-Hombach, V.; Gilbert, A.A.; Panin, N.; Dolukhanov, P. M. The Black Sea Flood Question: changes in coastline, climate and human settlement. pp. 245–370. ISBN978-9402404654.
15. Jump up^ Anthony, David W. (2010). The horse, the wheel, and language : how Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN9780691148182.
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17. Jump up^ Detlef Gronenborn, Beyond the models: Neolithisation in Central Europe, Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. 144 (2007), pp. 73-98 (87).
18. Jump up^ Sarah Gibbens, Face of 9,000-Year-Old Teenager Reconstructed, National Geographic, 19 January 2018.
19. Jump up^ Srejovic, Dragoslav (1972). Europe’s First Monumental Sculpture: New Discoveries at Lepenski Vir. ISBN0-500-39009-6.
20. Jump up^ Central Asia does not enter the Neolithic, but transitions from the Mesolithic to the Chalcolithic in the fourth millennium BC (metmuseum.org). The early onset of the Mesolithic in Central Asia and its importance for later European mesolithic cultures was understood only after 2015, with the radiocarbon dating of the Shigor idol to 11,500 years old. N.E. Zaretskaya et al., « Radiocarbon chronology of the Shigir and Gorbunovo archaeological bog sites, Middle Urals, Russia », Proceedings of the 6th International Radiocarbon and Archaeology Symposium, (E Boaretto and N R Rebollo Franco eds.), RADIOCARBON Vol 54, Nr 3–4, 2012, 783–794.
21. Jump up^ Munro, Natalie D. (2003). « Small game, the Younger Dryas, and the transition to agriculture in the southern Levant » (PDF). Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte. 12: 47–71.
22. Jump up^ Bar-Yosef, Ofer (1998). « The Natufian Culture in the Levant, Threshold to the Origins of Agriculture » (PDF). Evolutionary Anthropology. 6 (5): 159–177. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6:5<159::AID-EVAN4>3.0.CO;2-7.
23. Jump up^ Delage, Christophe, ed. (2004). The last hunter-gatherers in the Near East. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports 1320. ISBN978-1-84171-389-2.
24. Jump up^ Zhang, Chi, The Mesolithic and the Neolithic in China (PDF), 1999, Documenta Praehistorica. Poročilo o raziskovanju paleolitika, neolotika in eneolitika v Sloveniji. Neolitske študije = Neolithic studies, [Zv.] 26 (1999), pp. 1-13 dLib
25. Jump up^ Sailendra Nath Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization, p. 23, 1999, New Age International, ISBN8122411983, 9788122411980
26. Jump up^ Central Asia does not enter the Neolithic, but transitions from the Mesolithic to the Chalcolithic in the fourth millennium BC (metmuseum.org). The early onset of the Mesolithic in Central Asia and its importance for later European mesolithic cultures was understood only after 2015, with the radiocarbon dating of the Shigor idol to 11,500 years old. N.E. Zaretskaya et al., « Radiocarbon chronology of the Shigir and Gorbunovo archaeological bog sites, Middle Urals, Russia », Proceedings of the 6th International Radiocarbon and Archaeology Symposium, (E Boaretto and N R Rebollo Franco eds.), RADIOCARBON Vol 54, Nr 3–4, 2012, 783–794.
27. Jump up^ The term « Mesolithic » is not a useful term for the periodization of the South Asian Stone Age, as certain tribes in the interior of the Indian subcontinent retained a mesolithic culture into the modern period, and there is no consistent usage of the term . The range 12,000–4000 BP is based on the combination of the ranges given by Agrawal et al. (1978) and by Sen (1999), and overlaps with the early Neolithic at Mehrgarh. D. P. Agrawal et al., « Chronology of Indian prehistory from the Mesolithic period to the Iron Age », Journal of Human Evolution Volume 7, Issue 1, January 1978, 37-44: « A total time bracket of c. 6000-2000 B.C. will cover the dated Mesolithic sites, e.g. Langhnaj, Bagor, Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Lekhahia, etc. » (p. 38) S. N. Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization, 1999: « The Mesolithic period roughly ranges between 10,000 and 6,000 B.C. » (p. 23).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

 

Giacobbe Giusti, House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii

Giacobbe Giusti, House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii

 

Giacobbe Giusti, House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii

 

Giacobbe Giusti, House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii

 

Giacobbe Giusti, House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii

 

Giacobbe Giusti, House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii

Giacobbe Giusti, House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii

House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection

Plan of the Ancient city of Pompeii; House of the Tragic Poet marked by the number 18

The House of the Tragic Poet (also called The Homeric House or The Iliadic House) is a Roman house in Pompeii, Italy dating to the 2nd century BCE. The house, or villa, is famous for its elaborate mosaic floors and frescoes depicting scenes from Greek mythology.

Discovered in November 1824 by the archaeologist Antonio Bonucci, the House of the Tragic Poet has interested scholars and writers for generations. Although the size of the house itself is in no way remarkable, its interior decorations are not only numerous but of the highest quality among other frescoes and mosaics from ancient Pompeii. Because of the mismatch between the size of the house and the quality of its decoration, much has been wondered about the lives of the homeowners. Unfortunately, little is known about the family members, who were likely killed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.

Traditionally, Pompeii is geographically broken up into nine regional areas, which are then further broken up into insular areas. The House of the Tragic Poet sat in Regio VI, Insula 8, the far-western part of Pompeii. The house faced the Via di Nola, one of Pompeii’s largest streets that linked the forum and the Street of the Tombs. Across the Via di Nola from the House of the Tragic Poet sat the Forum Baths of Pompeii.

Layout

Recreated model of the House of the Tragic Poet

Plan

Like many Roman homes of the period, the House of the Tragic Poet is divided into two primary sections. The front, south-facing portion of the house serves as a public, presentation-oriented space. Here, two large rooms with outward-opening walls serve as shops run by the homeowners, or, less likely, as servants quarters. These shops lie on either side of a narrow vestibule. At the end of this hall sits the atrium, the most decorated of the rooms within the House of the Tragic Poet. Here, a large rectangular impluvium, or sunken water basin sits beneath an open ceiling, collecting water to be used by members of the household. Near the northern end of the impluvium sits a wellhead to be used for drawing water from the basin. Still farther from the entrance sits the tablinum, a second, open common area.

From these main areas extend smaller, private rooms, marking the second section of the house. Along the western wall of the atrium lie a series of cubicula, or bedrooms. Opposite these lie an additional cubiculum, an ala (a service area for a dining room), and an oecus (a small dining area). The northern end of the tablinum opens onto a large, open peristyle, or garden courtyard. To the right of the peristyle sits the drawing room, which, in the House of the Tragic Poet, is believed to have been used as the main dining salon. Adjacent to the drawing room is a small kitchen area. Near the left side of the peristyle, a small back door opens onto an additional street. Finally, into north-western corner of the peristyle is built a small lararium, or shrine to be used in worshiping the Lares Familiares, or family gods. This shrine contained a marble statuette depicting a satyr carrying fruit.^[1]

Although records and archaeological experts have confidently confirmed the existence of an upper story in the House of the Tragic Poet, little is known about its specific layout, as it was most likely destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.

Art

The house originally contained more than twenty painted and mosaic panels, six of which have been relocated to the National Archaeological Museum in Naples, Italy. These panels were selected for their relation to the Iliad, and were the inspiration behind the names Homeric House and Iliadic House. The painted wall panels within the house are examples of the Fourth Pompeiian style.^[2]

Vestibule

Mosaic Dog from floor of vestibule

The vestibule floor was decorated with a mosaic picture of a domesticated dog leashed and chained to an arbitrary point. Below the figure were the words “CAVE CANEM”, meaning “Beware of the Dog”.^[1]These words, much like similar signs today, warned visitors to enter at their own risk and served as protection over the more private quarters of the home. The rest of the vestibule floor was decorated in a tesseraeor checker-like pattern, in black and white tiles. This pattern was framed by a border of two black stripes that surrounded the room.

Atrium

The atrium was the focal point of art in the House of the Tragic Poet. Except for the House of the Vettii, it contained more large-scale, mythological frescoes than any other home in Pompeii. Each image was approximately four feet square, making figures slightly smaller than life-size. The images in the atrium frequently feature seated men and women in movement. The women are usually the focus of the images, undergoing important changes in their lives in famous Greek myths.

South wall

Zeus and Hera on Mount Ida

Nuptials of Zeus and Hera

This panel depicts the gods Hypnos, Hera, and Zeus on Mt. Ida. Hypnos is presenting Hera to Zeus, who sits seated on the right side of the painting. Zeus is holding Hera by the wrist, and Hera is looking at the viewer reluctantly with her veil removed. The three young figures at the bottom right of the painting are possibly dactyli.^[1] In the background, there is a pillar with three lions perched on it. This panel is part of the collection at the Archaeological Museum in Naples, Italy.

Aphrodite

The image of Aphrodite is now almost entirely destroyed, but what remained of the painting when it was discovered was copied in tempera by the artist Francesco Morelli. The painting may have contained a seated male lover. Because Aphrodite is smaller than the figures in the other paintings, it’s also possible the painting contained more figures and depicted the Judgment of Paris.^[2]

East wall

Achilles and Briseis

Panel of Achilles surrendering Briseis to Agamemnon

This dramatic scene depicts Achilles releasing Briseis to the Greek king Agamemnon. On the right side of the panel, Patroclus leads Briseis by the wrist. Achilles, seated, angrily directs them towards Agamemnon’s messenger.^[1]

Helen and Paris

Helen boards ship to travel back to her homeland of Troy. Although no longer in the image, it is believed that Paris was already seated in the boat as Helen boards. Both of these images are part of the collection at the Archaeological Museum in Naples.^[2]

West wall

Abduction of Amphrite

Although a large portion of this panel is destroyed, the same composition is seen in a painting from the Villa di Carmiano in Stabiae.The bottom half of the painting was found intact in the House of the Tragic Poet, and depicts Eros as he rides a dolphin and carries a trident. The missing portion, visible in Stabiae, shows that the painting originally depicted Poseidon on his sea horse as he abducted Amphrite. Like in other panels, she looked out toward the viewer.

Wrath of Achilles

Almost none of this panel has survived, but the composition, stance of the feet, and red cloth seem to match others which depict the Wrath of Achilles. Only feet and drapery are visible in the surviving portions. The original painting likely depicted Achilles on the right side of the panel as he drew a dagger to attack Agamemnon for taking Briseis, but he is restrained by Athena, who tells him to talk to Agamemnon rather than fight him.

Tablinum

Iphigenia in Aulis Wall painting from north wall, east of peristyle

The tablinum floor was decorated with an elaborate mosaic image. Here, actors gather backstage preparing for a performance, as one character dresses and another plays a flute. Other characters surround a box of masks to be used during the performance.

On the wall was a panel depicts a scene from the story of Admetus and Alcestis. A messenger reads an oracle to Admetus, seated beside Acestis, telling him that he will die if someone else does not willingly die in his place. Due to its proximity to the mosaic of the actors, excavators believed this painting depicted a poet reciting his poetry, resulting in the name House of the Tragic Poet.^[1]

Peristyle

The semi-outdoor peristyle area featured an imaginary garden scene or paradeisos in the trompe-l’œil style. This image, it is assumed, was intended to blend in with the actual garden that would have grown within the unroofed portion of the peristyle. To the left of the peristyle was a fresco known as the Sacrifice of Iphigenia, in which a nude Iphigenia is taken by Ulysses and Achilles to be sacrificed just before Artemisdelivers a deer to be sacrificed in her place. The right side of the painting depicts Calchas the seer holding his hand to his mouth to indicate his divine revelation. Iphigenia’s father Agamemnon sits on the left side of the panel facing away from the group with his face covered with a veil, similar to another painting of the scene by the artist Timanthes.^[2]

Dining room

The dining room contained three large panels and several smaller ones. The smaller panels feature depictions of soldiers and depictions of the four seasons as young women. The three larger panels depict cupids and a young couple, a scene featuring Artemis, and a scene of Theseus leaving Ariadne behind as he boards a ship.^[1]

Cultural references

The House of the Tragic Poet has served as the focus of many works of fiction and poetry. Among the more famous works is Lord Edward Bulwer Lytton’s The Last Days of Pompeii, in which the author invents the personal life of the owner, Glaucus, but accurately describes the house’s details. In the Redness of Dawn by author Waldemar Kaden depicts the house as being inhabited by a Christian man named Gaius Sabinus.^[3] Another well-known work is Vladimir Janovic’s The House of the Tragic Poet, an epic poem based on images from the mosaic and fresco images throughout the villa.

Interpretations

Art historians and Classics scholars have long been fascinated by the House of the Tragic Poet because of the unique way in which it juxtaposes images from different periods and locations throughout mythological Greece. No single angle within the villa allows one to view all of the images present. Instead, one is required to move around the villa, looking at different combinations of pieces. This logistical fact allows viewers to draw on larger themes of Greek mythology, especially on the relationships between the powerful men and women and also the deities of ancient Greece.

Gallery

• 

  Achilles’ surrender of Briseis (Naples National Archaeological Museum)

   

• 

  Alcestis and Admetus

   

• 

  Crono and Rea assisted by Iride

   

• 

  A young woman about to get on a ship helped by a man

• 

  Atrium

See also

• House of the Vettii
• House of the Faun
• House of Loreius Tiburtinus

References

1. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f} Mau, August (1982). Pompeii, its life and art (New ed., rev. and corrected ed.). New Rochelle, N.Y.: Caratzas Bros. ISBN 0892413360. OCLC 8852928.
2. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Bergmann, Bettina (June 1994). « The Roman House as Memory Theater: The House of the Tragic Poet in Pompeii ». The Art Bulletin. 76 (2): 225–256. JSTOR 3046021.
3. Jump up^ Pompeii in the public imagination from its rediscovery to today. Hales, Shelley, 1971-, Paul, Joanna. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2011. doi:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199569366.001.0001. ISBN 9780199569366. OCLC 704381197.

Nappo, Salvatore (1988). Pompeii: Guide to the Lost City. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 142–145. ISBN 0-297-82467-8.

Lytton, Lord Edward Bulwer (1834). The Last Days of Pompeii. New York: Merrill and Baker. pp. 35–41. ISBN 0-85685-250-3.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_the_Tragic_Poet

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, DESIDERIUS

Giacobbe Giusti, DESIDERIUS

Croce di Desiderio, IX secolo, museo di Santa Giulia, Brescia…

PrincipeRoby – Opera propria

 

Giacobbe Giusti, DESIDERIUS

Croce di Desiderio (Santa Giulia, Brescia)

Giacobbe Giusti, DESIDERIUS

Brescia Santa Maria in solario

Giacobbe Giusti, DESIDERIUS

Giacobbe Giusti, DESIDERIUS

Giacobbe Giusti, DESIDERIUS

 

Giacobbe Giusti, DESIDERIUS

Castagna – Opera propria

Mappa del Regno longobardo dopo le conquiste di Astolfo (751) – versione in italiano – secondo Paolo Diacono, Storia dei Longobardi, a cura di Lidia Capo, Mondadori, Milano 1992, cartina 5

Desiderius
A gold tremissis of Desiderius minted at Lucca
King of the Lombards
Reign	756 – 774
Predecessor	Aistulf
Successor	Charlemagne
Died	786 AD
Consort	Ansa
Issue	Desiderata Anselperga Adelperga Liutperga Adelchis
House	Lombardy

Desiderius (also known as Desiderioin Italian) (died c. 786) was a king of the Lombard Kingdom of northern Italy, ruling from 756 to 774. He is chiefly known for his connection to Charlemagne, who married his daughter and conquered his realm.

Rise to power

Born in Brescia, Desiderius was originally a royal officer, the dux Langobardorum et comes stabuli, « constable and duke of the Lombards, » an office apparently similar to the contemporaneous Frankish office of dux Francorum. King Aistulf made him duke of Istriaand Tuscany and he became king after the death of Aistulf in 756. At that time, Aistulf’s predecessor, Ratchis, left his monastic retreat of Montecassino and tried to seize the kingdom, but Desiderius put his revolt down quickly with the support of Pope Stephen II. At his coronation, Desiderius promised to restore many lost papal towns to the Holy See, in return for the papacy’s endorsement of his claim. Conflict with the Holy See under Pope Stephen IIIarose, for Stephen opposed Charlemagne’s marriage to Desiderius’ daughter. Desiderius ceased delivery of the towns after only a few.^{[citation needed]}

Seeking, like his predecessors, to extend the Lombard power in Italy, he came into collision with the papacy and the southern duchies. In the same year Desiderius associated to his kingdom his son Adelchis. Alboin, the duchy of Benevento and Liutprand, that of Spoleto were coaxed by Pope Stephen to commend themselves to the Franks and thus separate themselves again from monarchy. They then ^[1]placed themselves under the protection of Pippin, the king of Franks. In 758, Duke Liutprand of Benevento attained his majority and rebelled. Desiderius defeated him and granted his duchy to one Arechis, tying the duchy more closely to Pavia than it had been since Grimoald’s time. In that same year, Desiderius deposed Alboin of Spoleto and exercised himself the ducal powers there.^[2]

Appointing Antipope Philip

Intervening in the crisis that ensued after the death of Pope Paul I in 767, Desiderius seized a priest named Philip from the Monastery of St. Vitus on the Esquiline Hill in Rome on Sunday, July 31, 768, and summarily appointed him pope. Antipope Philip was never recognized nor gained a significant following, so he left the same day and returned to his monastery where he was never heard from or seen again.^[3]

Relations with Charlemagne

Stephen III opposed Charlemagne’s marriage to Desiderius’ daughter, Desiderata, in 768, but by his death in 772, he had made peace with the Lombards. The new pope, Adrian I, however, implored the aid of Charlemagne against him, for the marriage of dynasties was dissolved by Charlemagne’s repudiation of Desiderata in 771. Charles sent her back to her father. Moreover, Gerberga, the widow of Charlemagne’s brother Carloman, sought the protection of the Lombard king after her husband’s death in 771; and—probably in return for the insult Charlemagne had given to the Lombards by rejecting Desiderata—Desiderius recognised Gerberga’s sons as lawful heirs, and attacked Pope Adrian for refusing to crown them kings and invaded the Pentapolis. The embassies of Adrian and Desiderius met at Thionville and Charlemagne favoured the pope’s case.^{[citation needed]}

Such was the position when Charlemagne and his uncle Bernardled troops across the Alps in 773. The Lombards were severely defeated at Mortara(Ara Mortis) and soon besieged in their capital of Ticinum, the modern Pavia. Desiderius’ son Adelchis was raising an army at Verona, but the young prince was chased to the Adriatic littoral and fled to Constantinoplewhen Charlemagne approached.

The siege lasted until June 774, when, in return for the lives of his soldiers and subjects, Desiderius surrendered and opened the gates. Desiderius was exiled to Corbie Abbey, where he died, and his son Adelchis spent his entire life in futile attempts to recover his father’s kingdom. Some sources state that the king and his family were banished to a monastery at Liège, Belgium. Desiderius died sometime around 786.^{[citation needed]}

The name Desiderius appears in the romances of the Carolingianperiod. Charlemagne took the title rex Langobardorum, the first time a Germanic king adopted the title of a kingdom he had conquered. As stated by Paul the Deacon in the Historia Langobardorum, Charlemagne’s father Pepin the Short was formally adopted by Lombard king Liutprand, thanks to the alliance, and personal friendship, between the latter and Pepin’s father Charles Martel. This fact would have later legitimized both the ascent of Pepin to the throne of the Franks, as he was already the son of a king, and the claim of his son Charlemagne to be the King of the Lombards.^{[citation needed]}

Family

He married Ansa(or Ansia) and, as well as a son, had four daughters:

• Anselperga (or Anselberga), abbess of San Salvatore monastery of Brescia
• Adelperga (or Adelberga), married Arechis II of Benevento
• Liutperga (also Liutpirc or Liutberga), married Tassilo III of Bavaria
• Desiderata, married Charlemagne in 770, divorced in 771
• Adelchis (or Adalgis), patrician in Constantinople

1. Jump up^ PAUL., Ep. ad Pip.; Cod. Car., 15
2. Jump up^ Lars Ulwencreutz (November 2013). Ulwencreutz’s The Royal Families in Europe V. Lulu.com. p. 350. ISBN 978-1-304-58135-8.
3. Jump up^ Reardon, Wendy J. The Deaths of the Popes. Comprehensive Accounts Including Funerals, Burial Places and Epitaphs. McFarland. p. 59.

https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longobardi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desiderius

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Tuscany, Monte Falterona, Bronze statue depicting warrior. Etruscan civilization V century b.C.

London, British Museum

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Kouros in bronze, from Monte Falterona

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Lake of the Idols Lago degli IdoliGiacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA
Lake of the Idols following restoration
Lake of the Idols Location in Italy
Location	Arezzo, Tuscany, Italy
Basin countries	Italy
Surface elevation	1,380 m (4,530 ft)

Lake of the Idols (Italian: Lago degli Idoli) is a lake located in Arezzo Province, Tuscany, Italy. It is located 1,380 metres (4,530 ft) above sea level atop Monte Falterona, about 600 metres from the source of the river Arno.^[1] Situated near an ancient road linking Etruria (including Tuscany and Umbria) with the Adriatic port cities of Romagna,^[2] it is known for one of the largest archaeological finds of the Etruscan civilization; over 600 bronze statuettes of Etruscan and Roman origin, along with thousands of other figurines from Cisalpine Gaul and Umbria, were discovered within the lake.^[3]

Name

The lake was originally known as Lago della Ciliegeta (eng. Cherry Grove Lake), named for the cherrygroves that grew around the lake.^[4] The name Lago degli Idoli (eng. Lake of the Idols) was applied after 1838 and refers to the Etruscan bronze statuettes found in the lake (see History). Another name for the lake is Buca del Tesoro (eng. Treasure Hole).^[5]

History

According to Alfredo Bresciani, the lake formed approximately 6,000 years ago (4th millennia BCE), based on radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology testing done on the lake.^[6]

The lake was used in ancient times by the Etruscans. They viewed it as a « holy spring of the river-gods » because of the healing qualities of the water, which contains a high concentration of tannin.^[7] The Etruscans would throw bronze statuettes into the lake as a form of votive offering. These statuettes depicted typically people or animals.^[8] Some artifacts in the lake depicted body parts, such as heads, arms and legs,^[9] suggesting the healing power of the lake. Other artifacts found at the lake were coins (including Etruscan aes rude), and fragments of arrow bits and pottery.^[10]It is believed that the lake was popular among soldiers based on the number of arrow fragments, and more importantly, the number of statuettes found depicting Hercle, the Etruscan version of Greek divine hero, Heracles.^[11] Artifacts found at the lake are dated between mid-6th to late-4th centuries BCE.^[12]

One of these statuettes was discovered by a local shepherdess in May 1838.^[13] The statuette was probably of Hercle, now kept in the British Museum.^[14][15] News of the find spread quickly, and a team of local amateur archaeologists from nearby Stia^[16]began excavating the site in June 1838.^[13] The lake was subsequently dried following several days of fruitful excavations.^[17] Over 600 statuettes and thousands of other artifacts were discovered between 1838–1839.^[13] Many of these artifacts at the time were presented to the Archaeological Institute of Rome in 1842, but without any buyers. Ultimately they were sold to a private collector, who resold them to a number of museums, notably among them the British Museum,^[18] the Hermitage Museum and the Louvre.^[19] Over time, treasure seekers looted the lake, stripping it of whatever artifacts remained within.^[20]

Official excavations were sparse following the 1838–1839 excavations. The next excavation, in 1972, led to the discovery of three artifacts within the lake.^[21]Previously, in 1971, five artifacts in the form of bronze statuettes were accidentally recovered from the site.^[22]

The last significant excavation of the lake was done in 2003. Eight trenches were dug into the lake center.^[23] Within the trenches, among the artifacts found were bronze statuettes, fragments of bronze weaponry, « two pieces of gold foil shaped into bull-headed protomes » and « two polychromebeads« .^[24] « In addition to the objects named above, other finds include nails, spear points, ceramics (including an intact bucchero grigio miniature cup), arrows and aes rude. » These artifacts were mostly dated between the 6th–5th centuries BCE.^[25]

Following the 2003 excavations, local authorities began rehabilitating the lake. In 2007, the lake was refilled using water from a nearby spring.^[26] Vegetation surrounding the lake was replanted to mimic its original form during the Etruscan period, using pollen samples recovered from the surrounding layers of earth.^[27]

Hydrology

The lake is widely perceived to be a pond, due to lack of inflow from any bodies of water, i.e. rivers and streams. Research done at the University of Florence – Faculty of Engineering suggests that there exists an underground spring that provides a continuous stream of water to the lake.^[28] It appears that the lake is sinkhole-like, sitting atop layers of sandstone.^[29]

Cultural impact

The lake and its history was heavily incorporated into the plot of the 2013 film Neverlake.^[30][31]

References

1. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « The Lake of Idols is about 1380 metres above sea level on the southern slope of Monte Falterona (1654 metres) near to the sources of the Arno, approximately 600 metres more to the north-west (1358 metres). »
2. Jump up^ Il lago sacro: « Passava da questo zona una importante viabilità che collegava l’Etruria toscana e umbra alle zone dell’attuale Romagna e relativi porti adriatici (viabilità utilizzata anche in epoca romana e per tutto il medioevo. »
3. Jump up^ Caselli 2004, pp. 78–79: « Well in excess of 600 Etruscan and Roman bronze figurines, up to 60 cm in height, were found buried in the mud, together with thousands of other artifacts, coming from a wide area of Etruria, Cisalpine Gaul, and Umbria. »
4. Jump up^ Ferrini & Arrivo al Lago degli Idoli: « Eccoci al Lago degli Idoli, fino al 1838 Lago della Ciliegeta per le molte piante di ciliegio che qui erano presenti. »
5. Jump up^ Caselli 2004, p. 78: « Proceeding due south for about 1 km, a little above our path, we should be able to find the little, now refilled, basin of the famous Lago degli Idoli (Lake of the Idols), once known as Buca del Tesoro (the Treasure Hole) or Lago delle Ciliegeta (the Cherry Grove Lake). »
6. Jump up^ Meyers 2008: « The volume includes an interesting archaeological discussion by Alfredo Bresciani on Carbon-14 dating and dendochronology, which have been used to determine that the lake formed naturally c. 6000 years ago »
7. Jump up^ Caselli 2004, p. 79: « People gathered at the pond which they regarded as the holy spring of the river-gods embracing the country of Etruria. The waters of the pond, containing a high quantity of tannin, were also a strong disinfectant […] »
8. Jump up^ Salsini: For centuries, people in the area believed that if an earthquake awakened the god, they would all be drowned. The Etruscans, in fact, threw thousands of small bronze statues, depicting people and animals, into a lake, called Lake of the Idols, to keep the god happy.
9. Jump up^ Marie-Bénédicte: « […] nearly 2,000 fragments of weapons and of depictions of the human body (heads, trunks, arms, legs, etc.); and a few coins. »
10. Jump up^ Ferrini & Il lago sacro: « Tra il 1838 e 39 furono portati alla luce migliaia di reperti tra cui oltre seicento bronzetti, un migliaio di Aes Rude (la prima monetazione etrusca), circa 2000 punte da freccia e molti frammenti di ceramica. »
11. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « This is highlighted by the existence in the votive offering of Hercle of Greek manufacture. It can be hypothesized that this offering was mainly associated with « soldiers » both on account of the statuette of Hercle (god connected to heroism and also to war) and that of the Warrior, not to mention the huge quantity of arrows. »
12. Jump up^ Pancani & Tocchi 2012, p. 2: « The finds dated from the middle of the VI and the late IV century BC […] »
13. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Pancani & Tocchi 2012, p. 2: « The Lake of Idols was discovered by chance in May 1838, the accidental discovery of a bronze statue of Heracles was followed by more in-depth investigations in the area and the excavations, which began in June of the same year, brought to light more than 600 figurines and thousands of other artifacts. »
14. Jump up^ Perhaps this one
15. Jump up^ Ferrini & Un lago sacro: « Casualmente in quell’anno una mandriana rinvenne sulla sponda del lago una statuetta bronzea raffigurante Eracle (oggi conservata nel British Museum di Londra). »
16. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « In Stia, a company was formed by a group of local amateurs, who started a dig (1838-‘39).
17. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « A few days later, due to the formidable amount of excavated material, it was decided to dry the lake. »
18. Jump up^ 8 pieces in the British Museum
19. Jump up^ Caselli 2004, p. 79: « In 1842, secretary E. Braun, presented the finds to scholars in the hall of the Archaeological Institute of Rome. Since no public authority considered buying any of the finds, they were at once sold to a private buyer who, in his turn, sold them to various museums including the Museums of Berlin, the British Museum, the Louvre, the Boston Museum and the Hermitage. »
20. Jump up^ Caselli 2004, p. 79: « The extensive excavations, carried out from the summer of 2003 on-wards, demonstrated that the basin had been all but cleared of every possible interesting relic by generations of treasure hunters. »
21. Jump up^ Meyers 2008, pp. 175–176: « In 1972 three new bronze pieces were found at the same site, inspiring further excavation in the area.
22. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « In 1971, five statuettes were found by chance. »
23. Jump up^ Meyers 2008, p. 176: « Following the history and catalog of earlier excavations at the site of the Lago degli Idoli, Fedeli provides a brief account of the 2003 campaign. Based on information from the earlier work on the site, eight trenches were opened in the center of the ancient basin.
24. Jump up^ Meyers 2008, p. 176: « Several trenches yielded substantial deposits of archaeological finds—one in particular producing bronze votive statuettes, bronze heads, fragments of bronze weapons, two pieces of gold foil shaped into bull-headed protomes and two polychrome beads. »
25. Jump up^ Meyers 2008, p. 176: « Most of the finds are datable to sixth-fifth centuries B.C.[…] »
26. Jump up^ Ferrini & Il lago sacro: « Ultimati gli ultimi scavi, a fine 2007 la conca è stata riempita con l’acqua di una vicina sorgente. »
27. Jump up^ Caselli, p. 78: « The local authority and the Park authority have now refilled the anciend[sic] lake bed and are now replanting the origi-nal vegetation of the Etruscan period, as has been extrapolated by studying the pollen in the va-rious excavation layers. »
28. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « As to the widely debated origin of the lake, a hypothesis was recently formulated by a team of researchers and scholars of the Engineering Faculty of Florence University. Research, analyses and hydrogeological studies revealed that the lake originated from an underground spring capable of keeping up a constant flow of water.
29. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « From research conducted, it turns out that the rocks in which the lake formed consist of layers of sandstone belonging to a « pseudo-doline ». »
30. Jump up^ Keats-Shelley House 2013: « Paoletti chose a place full of charm and mystery, ‘The Lake of the Idols’, a Tuscan location renowned for many discoveries of ancient Etruscan artifacts in its depths. »
31. Jump up^ Hough 2014: « The setting is the historic « Lake of the Idols, » which was beheld by ancient Etruscans as a place of healing and mysticism. It was believed that one could escape sickness by tossing objects into the center of the waters, and for thousands of years, artifacts have been discovered at the lake. »

Sources

• Caselli, Giovanni (2004), The Casentino History Anthropology Environment, Le Balze, ISBN 88-7539-035-5, retrieved 12 June 2015
• Salsini, Paul, A Tuscan Trilogy: The Flood of Florence, November 4, 1966, retrieved 12 June 2015
• Lago degli Idoli, InEtruria.it, retrieved 12 June 2015
• Pancani, Giovanni; Tocchi, Marco (November 2012), The archaeological area of Pieve a Socana (Tuscany – Italy) (PDF), Vienna: Museen der Stadt Wien – Stadtarchäologie, ISBN 978-3-200-03281-1, retrieved 12 June 2015
• Marie-Bénédicte, Astier, Lago degli Idoli, Louvre Museum, retrieved 12 June 2015
• Ferrini, Alessandro, Arrivo al Lago degli Idoli [Arriving at the Lake of the Idols] (in Italian), Il bel Casentino, retrieved 12 June 2015
• Ferrini, Alessandro, Il lago sacro [The Sacred Lake] (in Italian), Il bel Casentino, retrieved 12 June 2015
• Meyers, Gretchen E. (1 January 2008), « Review of M. Ducci, ed., Santuari Etruschi in Casentino », Etruscan Studies: Journal of the Etruscan Foundation, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 11: 175–177, ISBN 978-0-9819692-1-3, retrieved 12 June 2015
• Neverlake, a new psychological thriller inspired by Shelley’s poetry, Keats-Shelley House, 20 December 2013, retrieved 12 June 2015
• Hough, Quinn Vincent (13 May 2004), Movie Review: Neverlake (2013), Critical Movie Critics, retrieved 12 June 2015

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

British Museum

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Hermitage Museum

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Louvre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_of_the_Idols

Giacobbe Giusti, MONTE FALTERONA, ‘IL LAGO DEGLI IDOLI’

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitage_Museum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Falterona

http://www.toscana.beniculturali.it/articoli/acque-sacre-culto-etrusco-sullappennino-toscano

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreste_Casentinesi,_Monte_Falterona,_Campigna_National_Park