Giacobbe Giusti, Pomeranian culture

Giacobbe Giusti, Pomeranian culture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pomeranian culture

Giacobbe Giusti, Pomeranian culture

Giacobbe Giusti, Pomeranian culture

Early Iron Age:
Nordic Bronze Age
Jastorf culture
Harpstedt-Nienburg group
Celtic groups
Pomeranian culture
House urns culture
East Baltic culture
West Baltic cairns culture
Milogrady culture
estonic group

The Pomeranian culture, also Pomeranian or Pomerelian Face Urn culture^[1] was an Iron Age culture with origins in parts of the area south of the Baltic Sea (which later became Pomerania, part of northern Germany/Poland), from the 7th century BC to the 3rd century BC, which eventually covered most of today’s Poland.

About 650 BC, it evolved from the Lusatian culture between the lower Vistula and Parsetarivers,^[2] and subsequently expanded southward. Between 200 and 150 BC, it was succeeded by the Oksywie culture in eastern Pomerania and the Przeworsk culture at the upper Vistula and Oder rivers.^[3]

Features

The Pomeranian culture developed in Western Pomerania covering the entire range of the Oder (Odra) and Vistula river basins. It has been sometimes associated with the Bastarnae. The original homeland of the Bastarnae remains uncertain. Babeş and Shchukin argue in favour of an origin in eastern Pomerania on the Baltic coast of northwestern Poland, on the grounds of correspondences in archaeological material e.g. a Pomeranian-style fibula found in a Poieneşti site in Moldavia.^[4]

The most characteristic feature was the use of burial urns with faces. The urns were often contained in stone cists. The face-urns have lids in the form of hats, often miniature ear-rings of real bronze are added. The faces are sometimes modelled very naturalistically, and no two urns show the same face. Incised drawings on the urns show hunting scenes, chariot races or riders. Brooches of Certoza-type and necklaces of multiple bronze rings are typical examples of metal work.

The economy was similar to that of the Lusatian culture. Rye was systematically cultivated for the first time, but still formed a minor component of the cereals. There were fewer hill forts than in the area of the Lusatian culture further west. Southern imports were sparse as well.

Related cultures

A related culture of the same age was the House Urn culture in central Germany.^[5]

Spread

Giacobbe Giusti, Pomeranian culture

Giacobbe Giusti, Pomeranian culture

Pomeranian culture costumes (Archaeological Museum of Kraków).

Giacobbe Giusti, Pomeranian culture

Antenna sword of the Hallstatt period (c. 8th century BC), found near Kraków

Giacobbe Giusti, Pomeranian culture

Two urns with facial decoration (from the Pommerellische Gesichtsurnen-Kultur) in Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte, Berlin.

8th-century BC architecture in Poland (timber framing)

Pomeranian culture pottery

In the later Iron Age, the Pomeranian culture spread southward, into areas formerly belonging to the Lusatian, Wysoko– and Milograd cultures. In Masovia and Poland this mixture led to the development of the group with bell-shaped burials.

• Lusatian culture
• Przeworsk culture
• Nordic Bronze Age

References

1. Jump up^ Anthropological Literature, Tozzer Library, « The Pomerelian Face Urn culture: a report on the status of the research », Acta praehistorica et archaeologica Berlin, no. 11/12, 1980/81. p. 219–304, Redgrave Pub. Co., 1982
2. Jump up^ Jan M Piskorski, Pommern im Wandel der Zeit, 1999, p.23, ISBN83-906184-8-6
3. Jump up^ J. B. Rives, Tacitus’ Germania, Oxford University Press, 1999, p.8, ISBN0-19-924000-0
4. Jump up^ Shchukin (1989) 65-6, 71-2
5. Jump up^ Peter N. Peregrine, Melvin Ember, Human Relations Area Files, inc, Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Springer, 2001, p.406, ISBN0-306-46258-

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomeranian_culture

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

Roca dels Moros, Spain, The Dance of Cogul, tracing by Henri Breuil

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

The Shigir Idol

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

Reconstruction of a « temporary » house in Ireland; waterside sites offered good food resources.

The Mesolithic This box: view talk edit
↑ Upper Paleolithic
Mesolithic Europe Fosna–Hensbacka culture Komsa culture Maglemosian culture Lepenski Vir culture Kunda culture Narva culture Komornica culture Swiderian culture Epipaleolithic Transylvania Mesolithic Transylvania Tardenoisian Schela Cladovei culture Mesolithic Southeastern Europe Epipaleolithic (Levant) Levantine corridor Natufian Khiamian Caucasus Trialetian Zagros Zarzian culture
↓ Neolithic

In Old World archaeology, Mesolithic(Greek: μέσος, mesos « middle »; λίθος, lithos« stone ») is the period between the Upper Paleolithic and the Neolithic. The term Epipaleolithic is often used synonymously, especially for outside northern Europe, and for the corresponding period in the Levantand Caucasus. The Mesolithic has different time spans in different parts of Eurasia. It refers to the final period of hunter-gatherercultures in Europe and West Asia, between the end of the Last Glacial Maximum and the Neolithic Revolution. In Europe it spans roughly 15,000 to 5,000 BP, in Southwest Asia (the Epipalaeolithic Near East) roughly 20,000 to 8,000 BP. The term is less used of areas further east, and not all beyond Eurasia and North Africa.

The type of culture associated with the Mesolithic varies between areas, but it is associated with a decline in the group hunting of large animals in favour of a broader hunter-gatherer way of life, and the development of more sophisticated and typically smaller lithic tools and weapons than the heavy chipped equivalents typical of the Paleolithic. Depending on the region, some use of pottery and textiles may be found in sites allocated to the Mesolithic, but generally indications of agriculture are taken as marking transition into the Neolithic. The more permanent settlements tend to be close to the sea or inland waters offering a good supply of food. Mesolithic societies are not seen as very complex, and burials are fairly simple; grandiose burial mounds are another mark of the Neolithic.

Terminology

 Three-age_system § Stone_Age_subdivisions

Giacobbe Giusti, Mesolithic

Mesolithic microliths

The terms « Paleolithic » and « Neolithic » were introduced by John Lubbock in his work Pre-historic Times in 1865. The additional « Mesolithic » category was added as an intermediate category by Hodder Westropp in 1866. Westropp’s suggestion was immediately controversial. A British school led by John Evans denied any need for an intermediate: the ages blended together like the colors of a rainbow, he said. A European school led by Louis Laurent Gabriel de Mortillet asserted that there was a gap between the earlier and later.

Edouard Piette claimed to have filled the gap with his naming of the Azilian Culture. Knut Stjerna offered an alternative in the « Epipaleolithic », suggesting a final phase of the Paleolithic rather than an intermediate age in its own right inserted between the Paleolithic and Neolithic.

By the time of Vere Gordon Childe‘s work, The Dawn of Europe (1947), which affirms the Mesolithic, sufficient data had been collected to determine that a transitional period between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic was indeed a useful concept.^[1]However, the terms « Mesolithic » and « Epipalaeolitic » remain in competition, with varying conventions of usage. In the archaeology of Northern Europe, for example for archaeological sites in Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavia, Ukraine, and Russia, the term « Mesolithic » is almost always used. In the archaeology of other areas, the term « Epipaleolithic » may be preferred by most authors, or there may be divergences between authors over which term to use or what meaning to assign to each. In the New World, neither term is used (except provisionally in the Arctic).

« Epipaleolithic » is sometimes also used alongside « Mesolithic » for the final end of the Upper Paleolithic immediately followed by the Mesolithic.^[2] As « Mesolithic » suggests an intermediate period, followed by the Neolithic, some authors prefer the term « Epipaleolithic » for hunter-gatherer cultures who are not succeeded by agricultural traditions, reserving « Mesolithic » for cultures who are clearly succeeded by the Neolithic Revolution, such as the Natufian culture. Other authors use « Mesolithic » as a generic term for post-LGM hunter-gatherer cultures, whether they are transitional towards agriculture or not. In addition, terminology appears to differ between archaeological sub-disciplines, with « Mesolithic » being widely used in European archaeology, while « Epipalaeolithic » is more common in Near Eastern archaeology.

Europe

The Shigir Idol

Two skeletons of women aged between 25 and 35 years, dated between 6740 and 5680 BP, both of whom died a violent death. Found at Téviec, France in 1938.

Further information: Prehistoric_Europe § Mesolithic

The Mesolithic began with the Holocene warm period around 11,660 BP and ended with the introduction of farming, the date of which varied in each geographical region. Regions that experienced greater environmental effects as the last glacial period ended have a much more apparent Mesolithic era, lasting millennia.^[3] In northern Europe, for example, societies were able to live well on rich food supplies from the marshlands created by the warmer climate. Such conditions produced distinctive human behaviors that are preserved in the material record, such as the Maglemosian and Azilian cultures. Such conditions also delayed the coming of the Neolithic until as late as 5000–4000 BCE in northern Europe.

Animated image showing the sequence of engravings on a pendant excavated from the Mesolithic archaeological site of Starr Carr in 2015^[4]

The type of stone toolkit remains one of the most diagnostic features: the Mesolithic used a microlithic technology – composite devices manufactured with Mode V chipped stone tools (microliths), while the Paleolithic had utilized Modes I–IV. In some areas, however, such as Ireland, parts of Portugal, the Isle of Man and the Tyrrhenian Islands, a macrolithic technology was used in the Mesolithic.^[5] In the Neolithic, the microlithic technology was replaced by a macrolithic technology, with an increased use of polished stone tools such as stone axes.

There is some evidence for the beginning of construction at sites with a ritual or astronomical significance, including Stonehenge, with a short row of large post holes aligned east-west, and a possible « lunar calendar » at Warren Field in Scotland, with pits of post holes of varying sizes, thought to reflect the lunar phases. Both are dated to around 8,000 BCE.^[6]

As the « Neolithic package » (including farming, herding, polished stone axes, timber longhouses and pottery) spread into Europe, the Mesolithic way of life was marginalized and eventually disappeared. Mesolithic adaptations such as sedentism, population size and use of plant foods are cited as evidence of the transition to agriculture.^[7] In one sample from the Blätterhöhle in Hagen, it seems that the descendants of Mesolithic people maintained a foraging lifestyle for more than 2000 years after the arrival of farming societies in the area;^[8] such societies may be called « Subneolithic« . In north-Eastern Europe, the hunting and fishing lifestyle continued into the Medieval period in regions less suited to agriculture, and in Scandinavia no Mesolithic period may be accepted, with the locally preferred « Older Stone Age » moving into the « Younger Stone Age ».^[9]

Art

Roca dels Moros, Spain, The Dance of Cogul, tracing by Henri Breuil

Compared to the preceding Upper Paleolithic and the following Neolithic, there is rather less surviving art from the Mesolithic. The Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin, which probably spreads across from the Upper Paleolithic, is a widespread phenomenon, much less well known than the cave-paintings of the Upper Paleolithic, with which it makes an interesting contrast. The sites are now mostly cliff faces in the open air, and the subjects are now mostly human rather than animal, with large groups of small figures; there are 45 figures at Roca dels Moros. Clothing is shown, and scenes of dancing, fighting, hunting and food-gathering. The figures are much smaller than the animals of Paleolithic art, and depicted much more schematically, though often in energetic poses.^[10] A few small engraved pendants with suspension holes and simple engraved designs are known, some from northern Europe in amber, and one from Starr Carr in Britain in shale.^[11] The Elk’s Head of Huittinen is a rare Mesolithic animal carving in soapstone from Finland.

The rock art in the Urals appears to show similar changes after the Paleolithic, and the wooden Shigir Idol is a rare survival of what may well have been a very common material for sculpture. It is a plank of larch carved with geometric motifs, but topped with a human head. Now in fragments, it would apparently have been over 5 metres tall when made.^[12] The Ain Sakhri Lovers from modern Israel, are a Natufian carving in calcite.

Ceramic Mesolithic

In North-Eastern Europe, Siberia, and certain southern European and North African sites, a « ceramic Mesolithic » can be distinguished between 7000-3850 BCE. Russian archaeologists prefer to describe such pottery-making cultures as Neolithic, even though farming is absent. This pottery-making Mesolithic culture can be found peripheral to the sedentary Neolithic cultures. It created a distinctive type of pottery, with point or knob base and flared rims, manufactured by methods not used by the Neolithic farmers. Though each area of Mesolithic ceramic developed an individual style, common features suggest a single point of origin.^{[13][citation needed]} The earliest manifestation of this type of pottery may be in the region around Lake Baikal in Siberia. It appears in the Elshan or Yelshanka or Samara culture on the Volga in Russia c. 7000 BCE,^[14][15] and from there spread via the Dnieper-Donets culture to the Narva culture of the Eastern Baltic. Spreading westward along the coastline it is found in the Ertebølle culture of Denmark and Ellerbek of Northern Germany, and the related Swifterbant culture of the Low Countries.^[16]

^[17]

Cultures

Geographical range	Periodization	Culture	Temporal range	Notable sites
Southeastern Europe (Greece, Aegean)	Balkan Mesolithic		15,000–7,000 BP	Franchthi, Theopetra[18]
Southeastern Europe(Romania/Serbia)	Balkan Mesolithic	Iron Gates culture	13,000–5,000 BP	Lepenski Vir[19]
Western Europe	Early Mesolithic	Azilian	14,000–10,000 BP
Northern Europe (Norway)		Fosna-Hensbacka culture	12,000–10,500 BP
Northern Europe (Norway)	Early Mesolithic	Komsa culture	12,000–10,000 BP
Central Asia (Middle Urals)			12,000–5,000 BP	Shigir Idol, Vtoraya Beregovaya[20]
Northeastern Europe (Balticsand Russia)	Middle Mesolithic	Kunda culture	10,500–7,000 BP	Lammasmägi, Pulli settlement
Northern Europe		Maglemosian culture	11,000–8,000 BP
Western and Central Europe		Sauveterrian culture	10,500–8,500 BP
Western Europe (Great Britain)	British Mesolithic		11,000–5,500 BP	Star Carr, Howick house, Gough’s Cave, Cramond, Aveline’s Hole
Western Europe (Ireland)	Irish Mesolithic		11,000–5,500 BP	Mount Sandel
Western Europe (Belgium and France)		Tardenoisian culture	10,000–5,000 BP
Eastern Europe (Belarus, Lithuania and Poland)	Late Mesolithic	Neman culture	9,000–5,000 BP
Northern Europe (Scandinavia)		Nøstvet and Lihult cultures	8,200-5,200 BP
Northern Europe (Scandinavia)		Kongemose culture	8,000–7,200 BP
Northern Europe (Scandinavia)	Late Mesolithic	Ertebølle	7,300– 5,900 BP
Western Europe (Netherlands)	Late Mesolithic	Swifterbant	7,300–5,400 BP

Near East

Main article: Epipaleolithic Near East

Further information: Zarzian culture

The first period, known as Mesolithic 1 (Kebarian culture; from 20,000–18,000 BCE until 12,150 BCE), followed the Aurignacian or Levantine Upper Paleolithic periods throughout the Levant. By the end of the Aurignacian, gradual changes took place in stone industries. Small stone tools called microliths and retouched bladelets can be found for the first time. The microliths of this culture period differ greatly from the Aurignacian artifacts. This period is more properly called Epipaleolithic.

By 20,000–18,000 BCE the climate and environment had changed, starting a period of transition. The Levant became more arid and the forest vegetation retreated, to be replaced by steppe. The cool and dry period ended at the beginning of Mesolithic 1. The hunter-gatherers of the Aurignacian would have had to modify their way of living and their pattern of settlement to adapt to the changing conditions. The crystallization of these new patterns resulted in Mesolithic 1. New types of settlements and new stone industries developed.

The inhabitants of a small Mesolithic 1 site in the Levant left little more than their chipped stone tools behind. The industry was of small tools made of bladelets struck off single-platform cores. Besides bladelets, burins and end-scrapers were found. A few bone tools and some ground stone have also been found. These so-called Mesolithic sites of Asia are far less numerous than those of the Neolithic and the archeological remains are very poor. The second period, Mesolithic 2, is also called the Natufian culture. The change from Mesolithic 1 to Natufian culture can be dated more closely. The latest date from a Mesolithic 1 site in the Levant is 12,150 BCE. The earliest date from a Natufian site is 11,140 BCE.^{[citation needed]} This period is characterized by the early rise of agriculture that would later emerge into the Neolithic period. Radiocarbon dating places the Natufian culture between 12,500 and 9500 BCE, just before the end of the Pleistocene.^[21] This period is characterised by the beginning of agriculture.^[22] The earliest known battle occurred during the Mesolithic period at a site in Sudan known as Cemetery 117.

Natufian culture is commonly split into two subperiods: Early Natufian (12,500–10,800 BCE) (Christopher Delage gives c. 13,000–11,500 BP uncalibrated, equivalent to c. 13,700–11,500 BCE)^[23] and Late Natufian (10,800–9500 BCE). The Late Natufian most likely occurred in tandem with the Younger Dryas. The following period is often called the Pre-Pottery Neolithic; in the Levant, unlike elsewhere, « Mesolithic pottery » is not talked of.

Geographical range	Periodization	Culture	Temporal range	Notable sites
North Africa (Morocco)	Late Upper Paleolithic to Early Mesolithic	Iberomaurusian culture	24,000–10,000 BP
Southwest Asia(Caucasus, Iran)	Late Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic	Zarzian culture	20,000–10,000 BP
Levant	Early Epipaleolithic	Kebaran	19,000–14,500 BP
Caucasus	Epipaleolithic	Trialetian	16,000–8,000 BP
Levant	Late Epipaleolithic	Natufian culture	14,500–11,500 BP
Levant (Israel)	Late Epipaleolithic	Harifian culture(Late Natufian)	10,800–10,000 BP
North Africa		Capsian culture	12,000–8,000 BP

« Mesolithic » outside of Western Eurasia

While Paleolithic and Neolithic have been found useful terms and concepts in the archaeology of China, and can be mostly regarded as happily naturalized, Mesolithic was introduced later, mostly after 1945, and does not appear to be a necessary or useful term in the context of China. Chinese sites that have been regarded as Mesolithic are better considered as « Early Neolithic ».^[24]

In the archaeology of India, the Mesolithic, dated roughly between 12,000 and 8,000 BP, remains a concept in use.^[25]

In the archaeology of the Americas, an Archaic or Meso-Indian period, following the Lithic stage, somewhat equates to the Mesolithic.

Geographical range	Periodization	Culture	Temporal range	Notable sites
North Africa (Morocco)	Late Upper Paleolithic to Early Mesolithic	Iberomaurusian culture	24,000–10,000 BP
North Africa		Capsian culture	12,000–8,000 BP
Central Asia (Middle Urals)			12,000–5,000 BP	Shigir Idol, Vtoraya Beregovaya[26]
East Asia (Japan)	Jōmon cultures		16,000–1,350 BP
East Asia (Korea)	Jeulmun pottery period		10,000–3,500 BP
South Asia (India)	South Asian Stone Age		12,000–4000 BP[27]	Bhimbetka rock shelters

Mesolithic.

• Holocene
• Hunter-gatherer
• Caucasian Hunter-Gatherer
• Western Hunter-Gatherer
• List of Stone Age art
• Younger Dryas
• Mammoth extinction
• History_of_archery#Prehistory

References

1. Jump up^ Linder, F. (1997). Social differentiering i mesolitiska jägar-samlarsamhällen. Uppsala.: Institutionen för arkeologi och antik historia, Uppsala universitet.
2. Jump up^ « final Upper Paleolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the Mesolithic » Bahn, Paul, ed. (2002). The Penguin archaeology guide. London: Penguin Books. ISBN0-14-051448-1.
3. Jump up^ Conneller, Chantal; Bayliss, Alex; Milner, Nicky; Taylor, Barry (2016). « The Resettlement of the British Landscape: Towards a chronology of Early Mesolithic lithic assemblage types ». Internet Archaeology. 42. doi:10.11141/ia.42.12.
4. Jump up^ Morgan, C.; Scholma-Mason, N. (2017). « Animated GIFs as Expressive Visual Narratives and Expository Devices in Archaeology ». Internet Archaeology (44). doi:10.11141/ia.44.11.
5. Jump up^ Driscoll, Killian (2006). The early prehistory in the west of Ireland: Investigations into the social archaeology of the Mesolithic, west of the Shannon, Ireland.
6. Jump up^ V. Gaffney; et al. « Time and a Place: A luni-solar ‘time-reckoner’ from 8th millennium BC Scotland ». Internet Archaeology. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
7. Jump up^ Price, Douglas, ed. (2000). Europe’s first farmers. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN0521665728.
8. Jump up^ Bollongino, R.; Nehlich, O.; Richards, M. P.; Orschiedt, J.; Thomas, M. G.; Sell, C.; Fajkosova, Z.; Powell, A.; Burger, J. (2013). « 2000 Years of Parallel Societies in Stone Age Central Europe » (PDF). Science. 342 (6157): 479–481. doi:10.1126/science.1245049.
9. Jump up^ Bailey, Geoff and Spikins, Penny, Mesolithic Europe, p. 4, 2008, Cambridge University Press, ISBN0521855039, 9780521855037
10. Jump up^ Sandars, Nancy K., Prehistoric Art in Europe, Penguin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), pp. 87-96, 1968 (nb 1st edn.)
11. Jump up^ « 11,000 year old pendant is earliest known Mesolithic art in Britain », University of York
12. Jump up^ Geggel, Laura (25 April 2018). « This Eerie, Human-Like Figure Is Twice As Old As Egypt’s Pyramids ». Live Science. Retrieved 28 April 2018.
13. Jump up^ De Roevers, p.162-163
14. Jump up^ Anthony, D.W. (2007). « Pontic-Caspian Mesolithic and Early Neolithic societies at the time of the Black Sea Flood: a small audience and small effects ». In Yanko-Hombach, V.; Gilbert, A.A.; Panin, N.; Dolukhanov, P. M. The Black Sea Flood Question: changes in coastline, climate and human settlement. pp. 245–370. ISBN978-9402404654.
15. Jump up^ Anthony, David W. (2010). The horse, the wheel, and language : how Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN9780691148182.
16. Jump up^ Gronenborn, Detlef (2007). « Beyond the models: Neolithisation in Central Europe ». Proceedings of the British Academy. 144: 73–98.
17. Jump up^ Detlef Gronenborn, Beyond the models: Neolithisation in Central Europe, Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. 144 (2007), pp. 73-98 (87).
18. Jump up^ Sarah Gibbens, Face of 9,000-Year-Old Teenager Reconstructed, National Geographic, 19 January 2018.
19. Jump up^ Srejovic, Dragoslav (1972). Europe’s First Monumental Sculpture: New Discoveries at Lepenski Vir. ISBN0-500-39009-6.
20. Jump up^ Central Asia does not enter the Neolithic, but transitions from the Mesolithic to the Chalcolithic in the fourth millennium BC (metmuseum.org). The early onset of the Mesolithic in Central Asia and its importance for later European mesolithic cultures was understood only after 2015, with the radiocarbon dating of the Shigor idol to 11,500 years old. N.E. Zaretskaya et al., « Radiocarbon chronology of the Shigir and Gorbunovo archaeological bog sites, Middle Urals, Russia », Proceedings of the 6th International Radiocarbon and Archaeology Symposium, (E Boaretto and N R Rebollo Franco eds.), RADIOCARBON Vol 54, Nr 3–4, 2012, 783–794.
21. Jump up^ Munro, Natalie D. (2003). « Small game, the Younger Dryas, and the transition to agriculture in the southern Levant » (PDF). Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte. 12: 47–71.
22. Jump up^ Bar-Yosef, Ofer (1998). « The Natufian Culture in the Levant, Threshold to the Origins of Agriculture » (PDF). Evolutionary Anthropology. 6 (5): 159–177. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6:5<159::AID-EVAN4>3.0.CO;2-7.
23. Jump up^ Delage, Christophe, ed. (2004). The last hunter-gatherers in the Near East. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports 1320. ISBN978-1-84171-389-2.
24. Jump up^ Zhang, Chi, The Mesolithic and the Neolithic in China (PDF), 1999, Documenta Praehistorica. Poročilo o raziskovanju paleolitika, neolotika in eneolitika v Sloveniji. Neolitske študije = Neolithic studies, [Zv.] 26 (1999), pp. 1-13 dLib
25. Jump up^ Sailendra Nath Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization, p. 23, 1999, New Age International, ISBN8122411983, 9788122411980
26. Jump up^ Central Asia does not enter the Neolithic, but transitions from the Mesolithic to the Chalcolithic in the fourth millennium BC (metmuseum.org). The early onset of the Mesolithic in Central Asia and its importance for later European mesolithic cultures was understood only after 2015, with the radiocarbon dating of the Shigor idol to 11,500 years old. N.E. Zaretskaya et al., « Radiocarbon chronology of the Shigir and Gorbunovo archaeological bog sites, Middle Urals, Russia », Proceedings of the 6th International Radiocarbon and Archaeology Symposium, (E Boaretto and N R Rebollo Franco eds.), RADIOCARBON Vol 54, Nr 3–4, 2012, 783–794.
27. Jump up^ The term « Mesolithic » is not a useful term for the periodization of the South Asian Stone Age, as certain tribes in the interior of the Indian subcontinent retained a mesolithic culture into the modern period, and there is no consistent usage of the term . The range 12,000–4000 BP is based on the combination of the ranges given by Agrawal et al. (1978) and by Sen (1999), and overlaps with the early Neolithic at Mehrgarh. D. P. Agrawal et al., « Chronology of Indian prehistory from the Mesolithic period to the Iron Age », Journal of Human Evolution Volume 7, Issue 1, January 1978, 37-44: « A total time bracket of c. 6000-2000 B.C. will cover the dated Mesolithic sites, e.g. Langhnaj, Bagor, Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Lekhahia, etc. » (p. 38) S. N. Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization, 1999: « The Mesolithic period roughly ranges between 10,000 and 6,000 B.C. » (p. 23).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com