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Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 23 mars 2019
Publié dans: Baiae, Baiae (Italian: Baia; Neapolitan: Baia) was an ancient Roman town situated on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Naples, and now in the comune of Bacoli. It was a fashionable resort for cent, Baynes, T.S., ed. (1878), "Baiæ" , Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 240  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "Baiae" , Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (11t, Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae, Senza categoria. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae

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Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae

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Compex of the roman thermapbath

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae

Temple of Mercury

Ra Boe / Wikipedia

Compex of the roman thermapbath

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae

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Baiae
Baia
Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae
Settore di Sosandra 20.JPG

Thermal baths of the sector of Sosandra
Baiae is located in Campania

Baiae
Shown within Campania

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Location Bacoli, Campania, Italy
Region Italia
Coordinates 40°49′00″N 14°04′11″E
Type Settlement
History
Cultures Roman

Villa of the Ambulatio

Baiae (Italian: Baia; Neapolitan: Baia) was an ancient Roman town situated on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Naples, and now in the comune of Bacoli. It was a fashionable resort for centuries in antiquity, particularly towards the end of the Roman Republic, when it was reckoned as superior to Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Capri by the super-rich who built luxurious villas here from 100 BC to 500 AD. It was notorious for its hedonistic offerings and the attendant rumours of corruption and scandal.

The lower part of the town later became submerged in the sea due to local volcanic, bradyseismic activity which raised or lowered the land, and recent underwater archaeology has revealed many of the fine buildings now protected in the submerged archaeological park.[1]

Many impressive buildings from the upper town can be seen in the Parco Archeologico delle Terme di Baia.

Name

Baiae was said to have been named after Baius (Greek: Βαῖος, Baîos), the helmsman of Odysseus‘s ship in Homer‘s Odyssey, who was supposedly buried nearby.[2] The adjacent « Baian Gulf » (Latin: Sinus Baianus) was named after the town. It now forms the western part of the Gulf of Pozzuoli.[2]

The settlement was also mentioned in 178 bc under the name Aquae Cumanae(« Cumaean Waters »).[3]

History

Satellite view of area

Baiae was built on the Cumaean Peninsula in the Phlegraean Fields, an active volcanic area. It was perhaps originally developed as the port for Cumae.

Baiae was particularly fashionable towards the end of the Roman Republic. Marius, Lucullus, and Pompey all frequented it.[4] Julius Caesar had a villa there, and much of the town became imperial property under Augustus.[citation needed] Nero had a notable villa constructed in the middle of the 1st century and Hadrian died at his villa in ad 138.[5] It was also a favourite spot of the emperor Septimius Severus.[4] The resorts sometimes capitalised on their imperial associations: Suetonius mentions in his history that the cloak, brooch, and gold bulla given to the young Tiberius by Pompey‘s daughter Pompeia Magna were still on display around ad 120.

According to Suetonius, in ad 39, Baiae was the location for a stunt by the eccentric emperor Caligula to answer the astrologer Thrasyllus‘s prediction that he had « no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Gulf of Baiae ». Caligula ordered a 3-mile-long pontoon bridge to be built from impounded ships of the area, fastened together and weighted with sand, stretching from Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli. Clad in a gold cloak, he then crossed it upon a horse.[6]Cassius Dio‘s Roman History also includes the event, with the detail that the emperor ordered resting places and lodging rooms with potable water erected at intervals along the bridge.[7] As late as the 18th century, scattered fragments were still being shown to tourists as the « Bridge of Caligula ».[8] Malloch has argued that Suetonius’s account was likely coloured by his bias against Caligula; instead, he claims that “the act of bridging the Bay of Naples was an excellent—and safe—means by which to lay the foundation for [Caligula’s] military glory.”[9]

Baiae was notorious for the hedonistic lifestyle of its residents and guests. In 56 bc, the prominent socialite Clodia was condemned by the defence at the trial of Marcus Caelius Rufus as living as a harlot in Rome and at the « crowded resort of Baiae », indulging in beach parties and long drinking sessions. An elegy by Sextus Propertiuswritten in the Augustan Age describes it as a « den of licentiousness and vice ». In the 1st century, « Baiae and Vice » formed one of the moral epistles written by Seneca the Younger; he described it as a « vortex of luxury » and a « harbour of vice » where girls went to play at being girls, old women as girls and some men as girls according to a first century BC wag.[citation needed]

It never attained municipal status, being administered throughout by nearby Cumae.[4]

From 36BC, Baiae included Portus Julius, the base of the western fleet of the Roman Navy before it was abandoned because of the silting up of Lake Lucrinus (from which a short channel led to Lake Avernus) for the two harbours at Cape Misenum 4 miles south.

Baiae was sacked during the barbarian invasions[4] and again by Muslim raiders in the 8th century. It was deserted owing to recurrent malaria by 1500,[citation needed] but Pedro de Toledo erected a castle, Castello di Baja, in the 16th century.[4]

Archaeology

Temple of Mercury

The site had occasionally revealed Roman sculptures. The Aphrodite of Baiae, a variant of the Venus de Medici, was supposedly excavated there sometime before 1803, when the English antiquary Thomas Hope began displaying it in his gallery on Duchess Street in London.[10]

The important archaeological remains were intensively excavated from 1941, revealing layers of buildings, villas and thermal complexes belonging to periods from the late Republican age, the Augustan, Hadrianic to the late empire.

The lowering of the ground below sea level, due to bradyseism, seems to have occurred in two phases: between the third and fifth centuries, still in the late Imperial era, followed by a more substantial submersion a century later. The lower part of Baiae was largely submerged by the sea by the 8th century.[11]

A cache of plaster casts of Hellenistic sculptures was discovered in the cellar of the Baths of Sosandra at Baiae; they are now displayed at the town’s archaeological museum.[12] The collection includes parts of several famous sculptures, including Athens‘s Harmodius and Aristogeiton and the Athena of Velletri. It suggests that the area had a workshop mass-producing marble or bronze copies of Greek art for the Italian market.[13]

Monuments

Temple of Diana

« Temple of Mercury » which has remarkable acoustic properties

Among the most significant and remarkable remains are several dome-like structures such as the great so-called Temple of Mercury, the Temple of Venus, and the Temple of Diana, which were traditionally credited to some of the more famous residents of the town’s villas, (although they were not temples but parts of thermal baths).[4]

Temple of Diana

This colossal ogival dome, today half collapsed, originally collected vapours coming from the ground below and was used for thermal baths. It was decorated with marble friezes depicting hunting scenes [14].

Temple of Mercury

The « Temple of Mercury »[15] consists of an enormous 21.5 m (71 ft) diameter dome, a miracle of engineering and the largest in the world prior to the construction of Rome‘s Pantheon in ad 128.[16][17] The dome has a central hole or oculus and was made with large tuff blocks.

It was, and is still today, used to enclose the frigidarium or cold pool of the public baths. From eighteenth century descriptions it appeared to have had six niches of which four were semicircular.

Temple of Venus

Giacobbe Giusti, Baiae

Temple of Venus

Another octagonal building, sunken 3 metres in the ground, had eight large arched windows and a balcony inside overlooking the pool. It owes its name to Scipione Mazzella who claimed to have found the statue of the goddess there.[18]

Sector of Sosandra

Villa of the Ambulatio

Overlooking the sea is the « Villa of the Ambulatio » with a series of six terraces connected to each other by a complex of staircases of which the last leads to the « sector of Mercury ». It is named after the ‘ambulatio’, the long corridor with two longitudinal naves on the second terrace, intended to be a covered walk with large openings with a magnificent panorama of the gulf below. Traces of precious stucco can be seen on the brick structure of the central pillars. On the upper terrace were the residential areas, once richly decorated with several rooms dedicated to leisure. The third terrace is now transformed into a tree-lined garden. The fourth terrace was for service areas. On the fifth terrace are several rooms probably used as places to stay and rest, open to the sea and to the last terrace below that once was occupied by a garden, as today, perhaps surrounded by a colonnade.

Sector of Sosandra

Bounded by two parallel staircases is the sector or « Temple of Sosandra » from the name of the statue found in 1953 and now located in the National Museum of Naples.

The complexity of this sector on four terraces does not allow its intended use to be identified but it was either a spa, a villa, a hospitalia (a sort of hotel for visitors to the nearby spa), or even a meeting place of Nero for the entertainment of sailors of the nearby Classis Misenensis, the Miseno fleet.

On the highest terrace are service areas and a small balneum with rich stucco decorations on the ceiling. The next level has a large terrace open to the sea and bordered on three sides by a portico. In the garden are four parallel walls that perhaps delimited three triclinia in the open. Above the peristyle are several residential rooms, once richly finished, particularly the original precious mosaic floors representing theatrical masks inside geometric frames. Below this level there is a semicircular building surmounted by five vaulted rooms once hidden by a façade decorated with niches and columns, overall making an impressive composition. On the axis of the complex is a room perhaps used as a nymphaeum from which flowed the water that fed an existing large external circular tank. On the peristyle of the lower terrace are paintings from two successive periods: those with an egyptian taste (characters and symbols of the cult of Isis ) from the middle of the 1st century AD; these are largely covered by paintings of the 2nd century, which depict male and female figures within architectural schemes.

Other sites

Completely submerged by the waters is the nymphaeum of Emperor Claudius whose sculptures have been transferred to the town’s archaeological museum, the Museo Archeologico dei Campi Flegrei [it] (Phlegraean Fields Archaeological Museum) which also contains other items excavated on the site.

The public and private baths of Baiae were filled with warm mineral water directed to their pools from underground hot springs, as many still are today. Roman engineerswere also able to construct a complex system of chambers that channelled underground heat into facilities that acted as saunas. In addition to their recreational function, the baths were used in Roman medicine to treat various illnesses and physicians would attend their patients at the springs.[19]

Mosaic in the baths of Venus

Baiae was supplied with fresh drinking water from a branch of the Aqua Augustaaqueduct, a cross-section of which can be seen nearby. [20]

In culture

Notes

  1. ^ archaeological park: http://www.parcoarcheologicosommersodibaia.it/sito.php?id_lingua=en&id=SI000029
  2. ^ Jump up to:ab EB (1911).
  3. ^ EBO (2007).
  4. ^ Jump up to:abcdef EB (1878).
  5. ^ Historia augusta, ch. 25
  6. ^ Suet., « Caius Caesar Caligula », 12 Caes.
  7. ^ Cassius Dio, Rom. Hist., Bk LIX
  8. ^ Holland, Elizabeth, Ilchester, Lord, ed., Journal, p. 23
  9. ^ Malloch, Simon J.V. (2001), « Gaius’ Bridge at Baiae and Alexander-Imitatio », The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 206–217
  10. ^ Waywell & al. (1986), p. 41 & fig. 11.
  11. ^ Eduardo Scognamiglio, The survey of the submerged Bay: reteissa.it
  12. ^ « Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum », CVA Online
  13. ^ « B216 », Beazley Archive
  14. ^ Mileto S. (1998) The Phlegraean Fields , Rome, Newton & Compton, p. 39 , 40 , 42 , 43 , ISBN88-8183-026-4 .
  15. ^ « The thermo-mineral complex at Baiae and De Balneis Puteolanis », Access My Library
  16. ^ Mark & al. (1986), p. 24.
  17. ^ « The Ancient Baths of Baiae », Tour Italy
  18. ^ Mazzella S. (1591) Site and antiquity of the city of Pozzuolo
  19. ^ Yegül (1996).
  20. ^ Aqua Augusta – Serino (Italy): http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/serino2/index.html
  21. ^ Altshuller (1992), p. 127.

References

  • Wikisource Baynes, T.S., ed. (1878), « Baiæ » , Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, p. 240
  • Wikisource Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), « Baiae » , Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 214
  • « Baiae », Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2007.
  • Altshuller, Mark (1992), « The Transition to the Modern Age: Sentimentalism and Preromanticism, 1790–1820 », in Moser, Charles, The Cambridge History of Russian Literature, rev. ed., Cambridge University Press, ISBN0521425670
  • Mark, R.; Hutchinson, P. (March 1986), « On the Structure of the Roman Pantheon », Art Bulletin, Vol. 68.
  • Waywell, Geoffrey B.; Laev, Raoul (1986), The Lever and Hope Sculptures: Ancient Sculptures in the Lady Lever Art Gallery, Port Sunlight, and a Catalogue of the Ancient Sculptures Formerly in the Hope Collection, London and Deepdene.
  • Yegül, Fikret K. (1996), « The Thermo-Mineral Complex at Baiae and De Balneis Puteolanis », The Art Bulletin, Vol. 78, No. 1, pp. 137–161

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Giacobbe Giusti, Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 20 mars 2019
Publié dans: Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome, Giacobbe Giusti, Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome, Senza categoria. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome

Giovanni Paolo Pannini – The Piazza and Church of Santa Maria Maggiore.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome

User:Jean-Christophe BENOIST

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome

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Giacobbe Giusti, Basilique de Maxence et Constantin, Rome

Michele Campeotto

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 3 janvier 2019
Publié dans: Ballista, Caesar (tr Handforth), 1982, The Conquest of Gaul, London: Penguin Books Campbell, D; 2003, Greek and Roman Artillery 399 BC – AD 363, Osprey Connolly, P; 1975, The Roman Army, Macdonald Educatio, Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista, Roman Stone Throwing Ballista Ancient Greek Artillery Technology Reconstructions and Plans of Greek and Roman Artillery Plans For a Working Model Ballista The reconstruction of a full-size working bal, Senza categoria, Soedel, Werner; Foley, Vernard (March 1979). "Ancient Catapults". Scientific American. 240 (3): 120–28. ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "Ballistra". A Greek-English Lexicon – via . Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

Roman cart-mounted carroballista

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

Roman ‘catapult-nest’ on Trajan’s Column

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

One talent ballista (26 kg weight projectile). The heaviest versions could shoot up to three talents (78 kg), possibly much more.[1]

Part of a series on the
Military of ancient Rome
Scutum 1.jpg Military of ancient Rome portal

The ballista (Latin, from Greek βαλλίστρα ballistra[2]and that from βάλλω ballō, « throw »),[3] plural ballistae, sometimes called bolt thrower, was an ancientmissile weapon that launched a large projectile at a distant target.

Developed from earlier Greek weapons, it relied upon different mechanics, using two levers with torsion springs instead of a tension prod (the bow part of a modern crossbow), offering much greater efficiency over tension-based weaponry. The springs consisting of several loops of twisted skeins. Early versions projected heavy darts or spherical stone projectiles of various sizes for siege warfare. It developed into a smaller precision weapon, the scorpio,[4]and possibly the polybolos.

Greek weapon

 Greek and Roman artillery

The early ballista in Ancient Greece was developed from two weapons called oxybeles and gastraphetes. The gastraphetes (‘belly-bow’) was a handheld crossbow. It had a composite prod and was spanned by bracing the front end of the weapon against the ground while placing the end of a slider mechanism against the stomach. The operator would then walk forward to arm the weapon while a ratchet prevented it from shooting during loading. This produced a weapon which, it was claimed, could be operated by a person of average strength but which had a power that allowed it to be successfully used against armoured troops. The oxybeles was a bigger and heavier construction employing a winch, and was mounted on a tripod. It had a lower rate of fire and was used as a siege engine. With the invention of torsion springbundle technology, the first ballista was built. The advantage of this new technology was the fast relaxation time of this system. Thus it was possible to shoot lighter projectiles with higher velocities over a longer distance.

For an oxybeles, the rules of a torsion weapon demanded that the more energy could be stored, the thicker the prod and the heavier the projectile had to be to increase the amount of stored energy delivered to the projectile. The earliest form of the ballista is thought to have been developed for Dionysius of Syracuse, circa 400 BCE.

The Greek ballista was a siege weapon. All components that were not made of wood were transported in the baggage train. It would be assembled with local wood, if necessary. Some were positioned inside large, armoured, mobile siege towers or even on the edge of a battlefield. For all of the tactical advantages offered, it was only under Philip II of Macedon, and even more so under his son Alexander, that the ballista began to develop and gain recognition as both a siege engine and field artillery. Historical accounts, for instance, cited that Philip II employed a group of engineers within his army to design and build catapults for his military campaigns.[5][6] There is even a claim that it was Philip II – with his team of engineers – who invented the ballista after improving Dionysius’s device, which was merely an oversized slingshot.[7] It was further perfected by Alexander, whose own team of engineers introduced innovations such as the idea of using springs made from tightly strung coils of rope instead of a bow to achieve more energy and power when throwing projectiles.[7] Polybiusreported about the usage of smaller, more portable ballistae, called scorpions, during the Second Punic War.

Ballistae could be easily modified to shoot both spherical and shaft projectiles, allowing their crews to adapt easily to prevailing battlefield situations in real time.

As the role of battlefield artillery became more sophisticated, a universal joint (which was invented just for this function) was integrated into the ballista’s stand, allowing the operators to alter the trajectory and firing direction of the ballista as required without a lengthy disassembly of the machine.

Roman weaponary

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

Reconstructed small ballista

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

Roman ‘catapult-nest’ on Trajan’s Column

Giacobbe Giusti, Ballista

Ballista bolt heads

After the absorption of the Ancient Greek city-states into the Roman Republic in 146 BCE, the highly advanced Greek technology began to spread across many areas of Roman influence. This included the great military machine advances the Greeks had made (most notably by Dionysus of Syracuse), as well as all the scientific, mathematical, political and artistic developments.

The Romans ‘inherited’ the torsion-powered ballista, which had by now spread to several cities around the Mediterranean, all of which became Roman spoils of war, including one from Pergamum, which was depicted among a pile of trophy weapons in relief on a balustrade.

The torsion ballista, developed by Alexander, was a far more complicated weapon than its predecessor and the Romans developed it even further, especially into much smaller versions, that could be easily carried.

Early Roman ballistae

The early Roman ballistae were made of wood, and held together with iron plates around the frames and iron nails in the stand. The main stand had a slider on the top, into which were loaded the bolts or stone shot. Attached to this, at the back, was a pair of ‘winches‘ and a ‘claw’, used to ratchet the bowstring back to the armed firing position.

The slider passed through the field frames of the weapon, in which were located the torsion springs (rope made of animal sinew), which were twisted around the bow arms, which in turn, were attached to the bowstring.

Drawing the bowstring back with the winches twisted the already taut springs, storing the energy to fire the projectiles. The bronze or iron caps, which secured the torsion-bundles were adjustable by means of pins and peripheral holes, which allowed the weapon to be tuned for symmetrical power and for changing weather conditions.

The ballista was a highly accurate weapon (there are many accounts of single soldiers being picked off by ballista operators), but some design aspects meant it could compromise its accuracy for range. The maximum range was over 500 yards (460 m), but effective combat range for many targets was far shorter.

The Romans continued the development of the ballista, and it became a highly prized and valued weapon in the army of the Roman Empire.

It was used, just before the start of the Empire, by Julius Caesarduring his conquest of Gaul and on both of his campaigns in subduing Britain.

First invasion of Britain

The first of Caesar’s invasions of Britain took place in 55 BCE, after a rapid and successful initial conquest of Gaul, in part as an expedition, and more practically to try to put an end to the reinforcements sent by the native Britons to fight the Romans in Gaul.

A total of eighty transports, carrying two legions, attempted to land on the British shore, only to be driven back by the many British warriors assembled along the shoreline. The ships had to unload their troops on the beach, as it was the only one suitable for many miles, yet the massed ranks of British charioteers and javeliners were making it difficult.

Seeing this, Caesar ordered the warships – which were swifter and easier to handle than the transports, and likely to impress the natives more by their unfamiliar appearance – to be removed a short distance from the others, and then be rowed hard and run ashore on the enemy’s right flank, from which position the slings, bows and artillery could be used by men on deck to drive them back. This manoeuvre was highly successful.
Scared by the strange shape of the warships, the motion of the oars, and the unfamiliar machines, the natives halted and retreated. (Caesar, The Conquest of Gaul, p.99)

Siege of Alesia

A four-wheeled carroballista drawn by armored horses, from an engraving illustrating a 1552 edition of the war-machine catalog De Rebus Bellicis(c. 400)

In Gaul, the stronghold of Alesia was under a Roman siege in 52 BCE, and was completely surrounded by a Roman fortification including a wooden palisade and towers. As was standard siege technique at the time, small ballistae were placed in the towers with other troops armed with bows or slings. The use of the ballista in the Roman siege strategy was also demonstrated in the case of the Siege of Masada.[5]

Ballistae in the Roman Empire

During the conquest of the Empire, the ballista proved its worth many times in sieges and battles, both at sea and on land. It was even used to quell riots. It is from the time of the Roman Empire that many of the archaeological finds of ballistae date. Accounts by the finders, including technical manuals and journals, are used today by archaeologists to reconstruct these weapons.

After Julius Caesar, the ballista was a permanent fixture in the Roman army and, over time, modifications and improvements were made by successive engineers. This included replacing the remaining wooden parts of the machine with metal, creating a much smaller, lighter and more powerful machine than the wooden version, which required less maintenance (though the vital torsion springs were still vulnerable to the strain). The largest ballistae of the 4th century could throw a dart further than 1200 yards (1,100 m). The weapon was named ballista fulminalis in De Rebus Bellicis: « From this ballista, darts were projected not only in great number but also at a large size over a considerable distance, such as across the width of the Danube River. »[8] Ballistae were not only used in laying siege: after ad 350, at least 22 semi-circular towers were erected around the walls of Londinium (London) to provide platforms for permanently mounted defensive devices.[9]

Eastern Roman Empire

Ballista stones found at excavation site in Jerusalem

During the 6th century, Procopius described the effects of this weapon:

But Belisarius placed upon the towers engines which they call « ballistae ». Now these engines have the form of a bow, but on the under side of them a grooved wooden shaft projects; this shaft is so fitted to the bow that it is free to move, and rests upon a straight iron bed. So when men wish to shoot at the enemy with this, they make the parts of the bow which form the ends bend toward one another by means of a short rope fastened to them, and they place in the grooved shaft the arrow, which is about one half the length of the ordinary missiles which they shoot from bows, but about four times as wide…but the missile is discharged from the shaft, and with such force that it attains the distance of not less than two bow-shots, and that, when it hits a tree or a rock, it pierces it easily. Such is the engine which bears this name, being so called because it shoots with very great force[10]

The missiles were able to penetrate body-armour:

And at the Salarian Gate a Goth of goodly stature and a capable warrior, wearing a corselet and having a helmet on his head, a man who was of no mean station in the Gothic nation, refused to remain in the ranks with his comrades, but stood by a tree and kept shooting many missiles at the parapet. But this man by some chance was hit by a missile from an engine which was on a tower at his left. And passing through the corselet and the body of the man, the missile sank more than half its length into the tree, and pinning him to the spot where it entered the tree, it suspended him there a corpse.[11]

Cheiroballistra and manuballista

 Cheiroballistra

The cheiroballistra and the manuballista are held by many archaeologists to be the same weapon.[citation needed] The difference in name may be attributable to the different languages spoken in the Empire. Latin remained the official language in the Western Empire, but the Eastern Empire predominantly used Greek, which added an extra ‘r’ to the word ballista.

The manuballista was a handheld version of the traditional ballista. This new version was made entirely of iron, which conferred greater power to the weapon, since it was smaller, and less iron (an expensive material before the 19th century), was used in its production. It was not the ancient gastraphetes, but the Roman weapon. However, the same physical limitations applied as with the gastraphetes.

Carroballista[edit]

Roman cart-mounted carroballista

 Carroballista

The carroballista was a cart-mounted version of the weapon. There were probably different models of ballista under the cheiroballistraclass, at least two different two-wheeled models and one model with four wheels. Their probable size was roughly 1.47 m width, i.e., 5 Roman feet. The cart system and structure gave it a great deal of flexibility and capability as a battlefield weapon, since the increased maneuverability allowed it to be moved with the flow of the battle. This weapon features several times on Trajan’s Column.

Polybolos

 Polybolos

Reproductions of ancient Greek artillery, including catapults such as the polybolos (to the left in the foreground) and a large, early crossbow known as the gastraphetes (mounted on the wall in the background)

It has been speculated that the Roman military may have also fielded a ‘repeating’ ballista, also known as a polybolos. Reconstruction and trials of such a weapon carried out in a BBC documentary, What the Romans Did For Us, showed that they « were able to shoot eleven bolts a minute, which is almost four times the rate at which an ordinary ballista can be operated ».[12] However, no example of such a weapon has been found by archaeologists.

Archaeology and the Roman ballista

Metal components of the Ampurias Catapult, found in 1912 in the Neapolisof Ampurias

Metal components of a 4th-century ballista

Archaeology, and in particular experimental archaeology has been influential on this subject. Although several ancient authors (such as Vegetius) wrote very detailed technical treatises, providing us with all the information necessary to reconstruct the weapons, all their measurements were in their native language and therefore highly difficult to translate.

Attempts to reconstruct these ancient weapons began at the end of the 19th century, based on rough translations of ancient authors. It was only during the 20th century, however, that many of the reconstructions began to make any sense as a weapon. By bringing in modern engineers, progress was made with the ancient systems of measurement. By redesigning the reconstructions using the new information, archaeologists in that specialty were able to recognize certain finds from Roman military sites, and identify them as ballistae. The information gained from the excavations was fed into the next generation of reconstructions and so on.[citation needed]

Sites across the empire have yielded information on ballistae, from Spain (the Ampurias Catapult), to Italy (the Cremona Battleshield, which proved that the weapons had decorative metal plates to shield the operators), to Iraq (the Hatra Machine) and even Scotland (Burnswark siege tactics training camp), and many other sites between.[citation needed]

The most influential archaeologists in this area have been Peter Connolly and Eric Marsden[13], who have not only written extensively on the subject but have also made many reconstructions themselves and have refined the designs over many years of work.

Middle Ages

With the decline of the Roman Empire, resources to build and maintain these complex machines became very scarce, so the ballista was supplanted initially by the simpler and cheaper onager and the more efficient springald.

Though the weapon continued to be used in the Middle Ages, it faded from popular use with the advent of the trebuchet and mangonel in siege warfare.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Soedel, Werner; Foley, Vernard (March 1979). « Ancient Catapults ». Scientific American. 240 (3): 120–28.
  2. ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. « Ballistra ». A Greek-English Lexicon – via Perseus Tufts.
  3. ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. « Ballo ». A Greek-English Lexicon – via Perseus Tufts.
  4. ^ Warry, John (1995). Warfare in the Classical World: War and the Ancient Civilisations of Greece and Rome. London, United Kingdom: Salamander Books Ltd. p. 178. ISBN0-8061-2794-5.
  5. ^ Jump up to:ab Gabriel, Richard (2007). Soldiers’ Lives through History: The Ancient World. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 127. ISBN0313333483.
  6. ^ McGowen, Tom (2006). Alexander the Great: Conqueror of the Ancient World. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers. p. 24. ISBN9780766025608.
  7. ^ Jump up to:ab Gurstelle, William (2004). Art of the Catapult: Build Greek Ballistae, Roman Onagers, English Trebuchets, and More Ancient Artillery. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. p. 51. ISBN1556525265.
  8. ^ De Rebus Bellicis, Chapter XVIII: ballista fulminalis. Note: The modern width of the Danube is 1.5 km. During the Roman Empire, it was unlikely to have been less than 1.1 km, bearing in mind that Trajan’s Bridge is known to have been longer than 1.1 km.
  9. ^ « Visible Roman London: City wall and gates ». Museum of London Group. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  10. ^ Procopius, Gothic war, chapter XXI
  11. ^ Procopius, Gothic war, chapter XXIII
  12. ^ Hart-Davis, Adam Discovering Roman TechnologyBBC History 17 February 2011. Accessed 21 November 2013
  13. ^ Marsden, E.W. (1971). Greek and Roman Artillery. Technical Treatises (Oxford). Reprinted 1999 by Sandpiper

References

External images
 Reenactor with manuballista, Retrieved 6 February 2008
 Trigger of the polybolos, retrieved 6 February 2008
 Side elevation of the polybolos, retrieved 6 February 2008
 From above with magazin removed, retrieved 6 February 2008
 Another view of the trigger, retrieved 6 February 2008
  • Caesar (tr Handforth), 1982, The Conquest of Gaul, London: Penguin Books
  • Campbell, D; 2003, Greek and Roman Artillery 399 BC – AD 363, Osprey
  • Connolly, P; 1975, The Roman Army, Macdonald Educational
  • Connolly, P; 1998, Greece and Rome at War, Greenhill Books
  • Feugère, M; 2002, Weapons of the Romans, Arcadia
  • Goldsworthy, A; 2003, The Complete Roman Army, Thames and Hudson
  • Marsden, E.W; 1971, Greek and Roman Technical Treatises, Clarendon
  • Warry, J. ;1995, Warfare in the Classical World, Salamander Books Ltd., London: United Kingdom. ISBN 0-8061-2794-5
  • Wilkins, A; 2003, Roman Artillery, Shire Archaeology

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 13 novembre 2018
Publié dans: casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice, Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens, Senza categoria. Tagué : , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

 

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

 

Pompei, riaprono la casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

Pompei, riaprono la casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

Pompei, riaprono la casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

Pompei, riaprono la casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens

Pompei, riaprono la casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice

 

BENEDETTA GEDDO
Lonely Planet Writer

A newly discovered piece of graffiti has changed the history of Pompeii as we know it

Pompeii is a place that keeps on giving. Even though the infamous volcanic eruption happened in 79 AD and the remains of the destroyed Ancient Roman city (cities, to be exact, since the disaster wiped out Herculaneum as well) were discovered as early as the 18th century; the site – one of the most famous in the world – still has treasures waiting to be found. Excavations have brought to light a series of well-preserved frescoes and mosaics, as well as a graffiti that changes the suspected day of the eruption.

Giacobbe Giusti, Pompeii : New-discoveries and Reopens
This fresco probably represented the mistress of the house. Image courtesy of Pompei Parco Archeologico

A charcoal writing found on the wall of a house that was undergoing renovations in the year of the eruption, states that someone “indulged too much in food here on the sixteenth day before the kalends of November,” meaning on 17 October.

The graffiti that changes the date of the eruption. Image courtesy of Pompei Parco Archeologico

Charcoal is a volatile material that doesn’t generally withstand time, so archaeologists believe that this means the graffiti was jotted down just a few days before the Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD— but in October, instead of August as it’s the belief of most.

Among the new discovery there were also perfectly maintained mosaics. Image courtesy of Pompei Parco Archeologico

Other discoveries were made in the Regio V area of the site, where two houses revealed a real archaeological treasure — mosaics, various objects, and frescoes. The fresco is believed to be part of a lararium, the part of an Ancient Roman house where the gods of family and home were honoured. It’s decorated with lush nature scenes, as well as two serpents, “good demons” who were thought to bring prosperity and fortune.

Pompeii’s director Massimo Osanna in front of the lararium‘s fresco. Image courtesy of Pompei Parco Archeologico

“It’s always exciting to discover something new and see our efforts give results,” commented Pompeii’s director, Massimo Osanna, during a visit to the newly-discovered houses. “It’s also interesting to see traces of previous archaeological excavations emerge, and observe how the same work we’re doing today was conducted in other eras.”

Excavations at Pompeii started as far back as 1748. Image courtesy of Pompei Parco Archeologico

Pompei, riaprono la casa dei Ceii e i Praedia di Giulia Felice

FOTOGALLERIA Dopo un lungo restauro le due dimore saranno aperte al pubblico dal 1 novembre

di Oscar De Simone, fotografie per gentile concessione Parco Archeologico di Pompei

http://www.nationalgeographic.it

https://www.lonelyplanet.com/news/2018/10/22/new-discoveries-pompeii-archaeology/

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Triumph of Poseidon and Amphitrite showing the couple in procession, detail of a vast mosaic from Cirta, Roman Africa, now at the Louvre)

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 18 septembre 2018
Publié dans: "Triumph of Neptune and Amphitrite", a Roman mosaic from Cirta, now in the Louvre (ca. 315-325 AD), Giacobbe Giusti, Triumph of Poseidon and Amphitrite showing the couple in procession, detail of a vast mosaic from Cirta, Roman Africa, now at the Louvre, Senza categoria, Stewart, John, African states and rulers. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Triumph of Poseidon and Amphitrite showing the couple in procession, detail of a vast mosaic from Cirta, Roman Africa, now at the Louvre

« Triumph of Neptune and Amphitrite« , a Roman mosaic from Cirta, now in the Louvre (ca. 315-325 AD)

Provincia Africa Proconsularis
Province of the Roman Empire
←  146 BC–5th century  →
Location of Africa

The province of Africa within the Roman Empire
Capital Zama Regia, then Carthago
Historical era Antiquity
 • Established after the Third Punic War 146 BC
 • Invasion of the Vandals 5th century
Today part of  Tunisia
 Libya
 Algeria
Part of a series on the
History of Tunisia
Coat of arms of Tunisia.svg
Flag of Tunisia.svg Tunisia portal
Part of a series on the
History of Algeria
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Flag of Algeria.svg Algeria portal
Part of a series on the
History of Libya
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Prehistory
Libyco-Berber era pre-146 BC
Roman era to 640 AD
Islamic rule 640–1510
Spanish rule 1510–1530
Order of Saint John 1530–1551
Ottoman rule 1551–1911
Italian occupation 1911–1934
Italian Libya 1934–1943
Allied occupation 1943–1951
Kingdom of Libya 1951–1969
Libyan Arab Republic 1969–1977
Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 1977–1986
Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 1986–2011
First Civil War 2011
National Transitional Council 2011–2012
General National Congress 2012–2014
House of Representatives 2014–present
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Government of National Accord 2016–present
Flag of Libya.svg Libya portal

Africa Proconsularis was a Roman province on the northwest African coast that was established in 146 BC following the defeat of Carthage in the Third Punic War. It roughly comprised the territory of present-day Tunisia, the northeast of Algeria, and the coast of western Libyaalong the Gulf of Sirte. The territory was originally inhabited by Berber people, known in Latin as Mauri(English: Moor; Spanish: Moro) indigenous to all of North Africa west of Egypt; in the 9th century BC, Phoenicians built settlements along the Mediterranean Sea to facilitate shipping, of which Carthage rose to dominance in the 8th century until its conquest by the Roman Republic.

It was one of the wealthiest provinces in the western part of the Roman empire, second only to Italia. Apart from the city of Carthage, other large settlements in the province were Hadrumetum (modern Sousse, Tunisia), capital of Byzacena, and Hippo Regius (modern Annaba, Algeria). Besides Latin, the official language, Punic and Berber languages were commonly spoken.

References

  • Lennox Manton, Roman North Africa, 1988.
  • Susan Raven. Rome in Africa. 3rd ed. (London, 1993).
  • Monique Seefried Brouillet, From Hannibal to Saint Augustine: Ancient Art of North Africa from the Musee du Louvre, 1994.
  • A. I. Wilson, Urban Production in the Roman World: The View from North Africa, 2002.
  • Duane R. Roller, The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome’s African Frontier (New York and London, Routledge, 2003).
  • Elizabeth Fentress, « Romanizing the Berbers, » Past & Present, 190,1 (2006), 3-33.
  • Michael Mackensen and Gerwulf Schneider. Production centres of African Red Slip Ware (2nd-3rd c.) in northern and central Tunisia: Archaeological provenance and reference groups based on chemical analysis, 2006.
  • Cordovana, Orietta Dora, Segni e immagini del potere tra antico e tardoantico: I Severi e la provincia Africa proconsularis. Seconda edizione rivista ed aggiornata (Catania: Prisma, 2007) (Testi e studi di storia antica)
  • Dick Whittaker, « Ethnic discourses on the frontiers of Roman Africa », in Ton Derks, Nico Roymans (ed.), Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition (Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2009) (Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, 13), 189-206.
  • Erich S. Gruen, Rethinking the Other in Antiquity (Princeton, PUP, 2010), 197-222.
  • Mennen, Inge, Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193-284 (2011)
  • Stewart, John, African states and rulers (2006)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 31 août 2018
Publié dans: Senza categoria, Theatre of Marcellus, Theatre of Marcellus (Latin: Theatrum Marcelli, Italian: Teatro di Marcello) is an ancient open-air theatre in Rome, Italy, built in the closing years of the Roman Republic. At the theatre, loc. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

Situation du théâtre sur le plan de Rome d’Italo Gismondi.

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

Fragment d’un masque de théâtre sculpté.

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

Fragment d’un chapiteau corinthien.

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

Palazzo Savelli prenant appui sur des passages du théâtre.

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

Fenêtres du Palazzo Savelli-Orsini au-dessus du deuxième étage.

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

Détail de l’arcade et des deux ordres superposés : premier étage dorique et deuxième étage ionique.

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

Voûte de l’ambulacre.

Theatre of Marcellus

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

 
Marcellus theater Rome.jpg

Theatre of Marcellus (above)
Location Regione IX Circus Flaminius
Built in 13 BC
Built by/for Julius Caesar Augustus Caesar / Marcus Marcellus
Type of structure Roman theatre (structure)
Related List of ancient monuments
in Rome
Theatre of Marcellus is located in Rome

Theatre of Marcellus
Theatre of Marcellus

The Theatre of Marcellus (Latin: Theatrum Marcelli, Italian: Teatro di Marcello) is an ancient open-air theatre in Rome, Italy, built in the closing years of the Roman Republic. At the theatre, locals and visitors alike were able to watch performances of drama and song. Today its ancient edifice in the rione of Sant’Angelo, Rome, once again provides one of the city’s many popular spectacles or tourist sites. Space for the theatre was cleared by Julius Caesar, who was murdered before its construction could begin; the theatre was advanced enough by 17 BC that part of the celebration of the ludi saeculares took place within the theatre; it was completed in 13 BC and formally inaugurated in 12 BC by Augustus.[1]

The theatre was 111 m in diameter and was the largest and most important theatre in Ancient Rome;[2] it could originally hold between 11,000 and 20,000 spectators.[1][2]It was an impressive example of what was to become one of the most pervasive urban architectural forms of the Roman world. The theatre was built mainly of tuff, and concrete faced with stones in the pattern known as opus reticulatum, completely sheathed in white travertine. However, it is also the earliest dateable building in Rome to make use of fired Roman brick, then a new introduction from the Greek world.[3]

The network of arches, corridors, tunnels and ramps that gave access to the interiors of such Roman theatres were normally ornamented with a screen of engaged columns in Greek orders: Doric at the base, Ionic in the middle. It is believed that Corinthian columns were used for the upper level but this is uncertain as the theatre was reconstructed in the Middle Ages, removing the top tier of seating and the columns.[1]

Like other Roman theatres in suitable locations, it had openings through which the natural setting could be seen, in this case the Tiber Island to the southwest. The permanent setting, the scaena, also rose to the top of the cavea as in other Roman theatres.

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

End section, showing later redevelopment

The theatre fell out of use in the early 4th century and the structure served as a quarry for e.g. the Pons Cestius in 370 AD. However, the statues located inside the building were restored by Petronius Maximus in 421 and the remaining structure still housed small residential buildings. In the Early Middle Ages the theatre was used as a fortress of the Fabii and then at the end of the 11th century (when it was known as templum Marcelli), by Pier Leoni and later his heirs (the Pierleoni). This saved the complex from further destruction. The Savelli held it in the 13th century. Later, in the 16th century, the residence of the Orsini, designed by Baldassare Peruzzi, was built atop the ruins of the ancient theatre. By the 19th century, rises in the street level meant that almost half the ground floor was below it.

Now the upper floors are divided into multiple apartments, and its surroundings are used as a venue for small summer concerts; the Portico d’Ottavia lies to the north west leading to the Roman Ghetto and the Tiber to the south west.

In the 17th century, the English architect Sir Christopher Wren explicitly acknowledged that his design for the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford was influenced by Serlio‘s engraving of the Theatre of Marcellus.

Copies

A 1:100 scale model of the theatre is found in Room IX of the Museo della Civiltà Romana in Rome.[4]

Giacobbe Giusti, Theatre of Marcellus

  • The arcade wall exposed

  • Along the arcades

  • Appearance in 1575

  • G.B. Piranesi‘s etching of a Doric bay]]

References

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b c Leland M. Roth 1993 Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning (Westview Press: Boulder, CO ISBN 0-06-430158-3 and Cassius Dio 53.30.5., pp 230-31
  2. ^ Jump up to:a b Cartwright, Mark. « Theatre of Marcellus ». Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia Limited. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
  3. Jump up^ Blagg, T.F.C., « Brick and tile » section, in « Architecture, 1, a) Religious », section in Diane Favro, et al. « Rome, ancient. » Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed March 26, 2016, subscription required
  4. Jump up^ « Room XI: Augustus », Museo della Civiltà Romana [1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_Marcellus

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, Fiel of Mars

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 30 août 2018
Publié dans: Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, Fiel of Mars, ancient rome fiel of marts, Cels Saint-Hilaire, Janine (2011). La République romaine: 133-44 av. J.-C. (in French). Armand Colin. De Chaisemartin, Nathalie (2003). Rome - Paysage urbain et idéologie: Des Scipions à Hadrien, Fiel of Mars, From the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste (Palastrina), now in the Museo Pio-Clementino in the Vatican Museums, see: D.B. Saddington (2011) [2007]. "the Evolution of the Roman Imperial, Senza categoria. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, Fiel of Mars

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, Fiel of Mars

Giacobbe Giusti, Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, Fiel of Mars

Giacobbe Giusti, Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, Fiel of Mars

Giacobbe Giusti, Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, Fiel of Mars

 

Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus

Giacobbe Giusti, Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, Fiel of Mars

 
Altar Domitius Ahenobarbus Louvre n1.jpg
Location Field of Mars [1]
Built in Between 122 and 115 BC
Built by/for Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus
Type of structure bas-relief
Related List of ancient monuments
in Rome
Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus is located in Rome

Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus
Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus

The Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, more properly called the Statuary group base of Domitius Ahenobarbus, is a series of four sculpted marble plaques which probably decorated a base which supported cult statues in the cella of a Temple of Neptune located in Rome on the Field of Mars.

The frieze is dated to the end of the second century BC,[n 1] which makes it the second oldest Roman bas-relief currently known.[n 2] However, there is also a contemporaneous relief depicting a Roman navalbireme with armed marines,[1] from a temple of Palastrina built c. 120 BC.[2]

The sculpted panels are still visible today, with one portion on display at the Louvre (Ma 975[m 1]) and another at the Glyptothek in Munich (Inv. 239). A copy of this second piece can be seen at the Pushkin Museum in Moscow.

Context

The base was found in the Temple of Neptune built near the Circus Flaminius,[a 1][n 3] by the Field of Mars. Remains of this temple may have recently been discovered under the church of Santa Maria in Poblicolis, but their identification remains uncertain.[3]

Antiquity

The reliefs seem to have been produced during the construction of a Temple of Neptune on the Field of Mars. A general, probably Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, vowed to build a temple for the god of the sea after a naval victory, perhaps the one won off Samos in 129 or 128 against Aristonicus who had attempted to oppose the donation of Pergamon to Rome by the will of King Attalos III. The construction of the temple (or restoration of a pre-existing temple) only dates to 122 BC, the year in which Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus attained the consulship.[3][4]

The reliefs, from the base of the cult statue, which originally consisted only of mythological scenes were brought to completion after Domitius Ahenobarbus’ censorship in 115 BC with a fourth panel. Other hypotheses however suggest the censorships of L. Valerius Flaccus and Marcus Antonius, who could equally be connected with the motifs of the reliefs.[5]

In 41 BC, Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus (descendant of the aforementioned), a supporter of the Republican party and of the assassins of Caesar had an aureusminted on the occasion of a victory over a supporter of Octavian, which featured the image of his ancestor on the obverse and a tetrastyle temple on the reverse, with the inscription NEPT CN DOMITIUS L F IMP (Cn. Domitius, son of Lucius, Imperator, to Neptune.[m 2]

Renaissance

The reliefs are mentioned in 1629 and 1631 after having been uncovered during the works undertaken by the Roman Santacroce family between 1598 and 1641, which included notably the construction and expansion of a palace near the Tiber by the architect Peparelli. The reliefs had been reused as decoration in the palace courtyard,[5] where they are attested in 1683.[6]

Description

Cast of the mythological panels, Pushkin Museum.

Despite their common name, the reliefs probably did not originally form part of an altar, but a large rectangular base (5.6 m long, 1.75 m wide, and 0.8 m high),[7] intended to support the cult statues.[3] These included works attributed to the Greek sculptor Scopas,[n 4] like the important statuary group featuring Neptune, Thetis, Achilles, the Nereids, Tritons and Phorcys with sea monsters and other fantastic creatures.[a 1]

The reliefs consist of two large panels on the long sides of the base and two smaller panels for the short sides. The large panel conserved in the Louvre is typical of Roman civic art and depicts a scene which one would only find at Rome in this period: the census. The other three panels depict a mythological theme in a Hellenistic style: the marriage of Neptune and Amphitrite. Given the difference in style, subject and material, it is thought that the two friezes are not contemporary.[6] The mythological frieze seems to have been executed earlier, covering the three visible sides of the base, which would originally have been connected to the back wall of the cella. Some years later, the base would have been shifted away from the wall, freeing the fourth side for the panel depicting the census.[3][7]

Historic scene

The historic panel of the base, 5.65 metres long, 0.80 metres high and 0.015 metres thick, is a bas relief of Parian marble, depicting the different stages in a census of the Roman citizen body.[3] The relief, which is one of the first examples of the continuous narrative style,[m 3] is read from left to right and can be divided into three scenes: the recording of the Roman citizens in the register of the censor, the purification of the army before an altar dedicated to Mars and the levy of the soldiers.

Historic face of the base of Domitius Ahenobarbus.

Giacobbe Giusti, Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, Fiel of Mars

Registration of Roman citizens.

First scene

At the very left of the bas-relief, an official involved in the census(the iuratoror « oath taker ») records the identity and the property holdings of a man standing before him, holding wax tablets in one hand and stretching out the other, in the gesture of the oath (professio). His statements are recorded in a codex, made up of two wooden tabulae, which the iurator has on his knees. Six more of these codices can be seen stacked at his feet.[m 4]The identity of this man is not absolutely certain, his identification as the iurator is challenged by a detail: he appears to be wearing calcei, special shoes reserved for individuals of Senatorial rank. So he might even be one of the two censors.[6]

This scene marks the beginning of the Roman census, the period when all Roman citizens were recorded. Based on each individual’s wealth, the censor, the Roman magistrate here shown to the right of the citizen performing the professio, determined who would sit in the senate and who would serve in the military, which the Romans considered an honour. The censor is depicted with one hand on the shoulder of a fourth person who wears a toga. By this gesture (the manumissio), the censor accepts his declaration and renders his judgement (the discriptio), which concluded the process of assigning the individual to a class. The citizen points to an infantryman with his hand, indicating to him the centuria to which he belongs.[m 5] The scene might depict the censorate of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus and L. Caecilius Metellus in 115 BC.

Second scene

Purification of the army.

Levy of the army.

A religious scene follows, the ceremony of the lustrum, which legitimated the censusand is presided over by one of the two censors, who touches the altar of Mars with his right hand. Mars is represented in full armour to the left of the altar. At right, three sacrificial victims are led up, the bull, the ram and the pig (the suovetaurilia) which were to be sacrificed in honour of the god in order to secure good fortune for the departure of the troops. The censor is helped during the ceremony by young assistants (camilla), one in the process of pouring the lustral water. Behind Mars, two musicians accompany the sacrifice, one playing the lyre and the other the tibia. The same to accompany the camillus who stands behind the altar and sings the precatio (prayer).[m 6] The second censor advances behind the victims, holding a standard (vexillum).[3]

Third scene

Finally, at the far right of the bas relief there are two infantrymen and a horseman (eques) with his horse. Along with the other two infantrymen depicted in the first and second scenes, the scene recalls the existence of four classes of mobalisable infantry (pedites) and a class of cavalry formed from the aristocracy.[3]

Mythological scene

The panels bearing the mythological scene, a marine thiasos of late Hellenistic style, are made of a different marble derived from Asia Minor.[7][3] They are conserved at the Munich Glyptothek. The reliefs probably depict the marriage of Neptune and Amphitrite.

Marine thiasos on the reliefs of Domitius Ahenobarbus, front panel.

At the centre of the scene, Neptune and Amphitrite are seated in a chariot drawn by two Tritons who dance to music. They are accompanied by a multitude of fantastic creatures, Tritons and Nereideswho form a retinue for the wedding couple. At the left, a Nereid riding on a sea-bull carries a present. To her right, the mother of Amphitrite, Doris, advances towards the couple, mounted on a sea-horse and holding wedding torches in each hand to light the procession’s way.[m 7] To her right is an Eros, a creature associated with Venus. Behind the wedding couple, a Nereid, accompanied by two more Erotes and riding a hippocamp, carries another present.

Notes and references

Notes

  1. Jump up^ The armour of the soldiers and horseman (from before the Marian Reforms of 107 BC), permits the scene to be dated to the second century BC (Coarelli (1968) and Stilp (2001))
  2. Jump up^ The first appears on the column erected by the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus in honour of his victory at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC
  3. Jump up^ The context of the reliefs, their function and their date are not known with precision; numerous contradictory hypotheses have been produced on this subject.
  4. Jump up^ The identity of the sculptor behind the statuary group is debated; the work is sometimes attributed to Scopas « the Elder » and sometimes to Scopas « the Younger » (Scopas Minor), a second century sculptor of the same name, and sometimes to neither sculptor without any other name being suggested. Only the Greek origin of sculptor seems to have consensus.

References

Modern sources :

  1. Jump up^ From the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste (Palastrina), now in the Museo Pio-Clementino in the Vatican Museums, see: D.B. Saddington (2011) [2007]. « the Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets, » in Paul Erdkamp (ed), A Companion to the Roman Army, 201-217. Malden, Oxford, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN978-1-4051-2153-8. Plate 12.2 on p. 204.
  2. Jump up^ Coarelli, Filippo (1987), I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana. NIS, Rome, pp 35-84.
  3. ^ Jump up to:abcdefgh Cels Saint-Hilaire 2011.
  4. Jump up^ Coarelli 2007, p. 267.
  5. ^ Jump up to:ab Coarelli 1968.
  6. ^ Jump up to:abc Stilp 2001.
  7. ^ Jump up to:abc De Chaisemartin 2003.

Other modern sources :

  1. Jump up^ Bas-relief de Domitius Ahenobarbus au Louvre sur la base Atlas.
  2. Jump up^ M. Crawford, Roman Republic Coinage, Cambridge, 1974, p. 525
  3. Jump up^ André Piganiol, Ara Martis dans Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire, Vol. 51, 1934, p. 29
  4. Jump up^ Ségolène Demougin, La mémoire perdue : à la recherche des archives oubliées, publiques et privées, de la Rome antique, Publications de la Sorbonne, 1994, p. 132
  5. Jump up^ Elisabeth Deniaux, Rome, de la Cité-Etat à l’Empire : institutions et vie politique, IIème-Ier siècle av. J.-C., Hachette Éducation Technique, 2001
  6. Jump up^ J. Paul Getty Museum, Thesaurus Cultus Et Rituum Antiquorum, Getty Publications, 2004, p. 407
  7. Jump up^ Albert Grenier, Le Génie romain dans la religion, la pensée, l’art, Albin Michel, 1969, p. 278

Ancient sources :

  1. ^ Jump up to:ab Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 36.26

Bibliography

General Works

  • Cels Saint-Hilaire, Janine (2011). La République romaine: 133-44 av. J.-C. (in French). Armand Colin.
  • De Chaisemartin, Nathalie (2003). Rome – Paysage urbain et idéologie: Des Scipions à Hadrien (IIe s. av. J.-C.-IIe s. ap. J.-C.) (in French). Armand Colin.
  • Coarelli, Filippo (2007). Rome and environs: an archaeological guide. University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-07961-8.

Analysis of the reliefs

  • Stilp, Florian (2001). Mariage et Suovetaurilia: étude sur le soi-disant  » Autel de Domitius Ahenobarbus «  (in French). Rome: Giorgio Bretschneider.
  • Coarelli, Filippo (1968). « L' » Ara di Domizio Enobarbo  » e la cultura artistica in Roma nel II secolo a.C. ». Dialoghi di Archeologia (in Italian). 3: 302–368.
  • Torelli, Mario (1992). Typology and Structure of Roman Historical Reliefs. University of Michigan Press. pp. 5–16.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altar_of_Domitius_Ahenobarbus

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Villa Romana del Tellaro, Sicily

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 12 août 2018
Publié dans: Roman Imperial, Senza categoria, The Villa Romana del Tellaro is a Roman villa dating from the late Roman Empire on Sicily in southern Italy.[1] It is located south of Noto in the province of Syracuse., Villa Romana del Tellaro. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Villa Romana del Tellaro, Sicily

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Villa Romana del Tellaro, Sicily

Giacobbe Giusti, Villa Romana del Tellaro, Sicily

Villa Romana del Tellaro (Noto), casale.JPG

Entrance of the site
Villa Romana del Tellaro is located in Italy

Villa Romana del Tellaro
Shown within Italy
Location Noto, Province of Syracuse, Sicily, Italy
Type Dwelling
History
Periods Roman Imperial
Cultures Roman
Site notes
Condition Restored
Ownership Public
Management Soprintendenza BB.CC.AA. di Siracusa
Public access Yes
Website www.villaromanadeltellaro.com

The Villa Romana del Tellaro is a Roman villadating from the late Roman Empire on Sicilyin southern Italy.[1] It is located south of Noto in the province of Syracuse.

History and description

The remains of the villa were found in 1971 in a fertile agricultural area, on a low elevation near the Tellaro river. The site was located on a farm dating from the 17th to the 19th century.

The central building was constructed around a large peristyle. The section of the porch on the north side had a floor which was decorated with mosaics. They show laurel wreathesforming circles and octagons with geometric and floral motifs. They border two other rooms that retain figurative mosaics.

In the first of these rooms a very damaged mosaic contains a panel with scenes of the ransom of the body of Hector. In this scene Odysseus, Achilles and Diomedes, identified by inscriptions in Ancient Greek, are weighing the body of the hero. The figure of Priam is lost, but the legs of Hector’s body can be seen partially on the right side of the scales. The gold of the ransom is visible on the left side. This event was not mentioned in the Iliad by Homer and is probably derived from a tragedy of Aeschylus. The mosaic floor in the second room shows a hunting scene with a banquet in the open air among the trees. The female figure in the scene is the personification of Africa.

The scenes on the mosaic found in the second room are reminiscent of the mosaics in the Villa Romana del Casale near Piazza Armerina. However, this mosaic has more stylized figures and two-dimensional, uncertain proportions, making the effect very different. The mosaics were probably the work of craftsmen from North Africa. Based on numismatic evidence, they were made in the second half of the fourth century CE.

The villa today

The villa has seen renewed interest in recent years, mainly due to a series of reconstruction projects and redevelopment of the site. On 15 March 15, 2008, over thirty years after the excavations, it was finally inaugurated and made accessible to the public.

Behind the villa lie vineyards, where the traditional grapes of the region are still grown. These include Nero d’Avola, Muscat and Albanello Bianco which are increasingly difficult to find today.

Gallery

  • The ransom of Hector‘s body

     

Giacobbe Giusti, Villa Romana del Tellaro, Sicily

  • Hunting scene

     

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Villa Romana del Tellaro, Sicily

  • Giacobbe Giusti, Villa Romana del Tellaro, Sicily

    Geometric motif

  • Tiger

Further reading

  • Dunbabin, Katherine M. D. (2001). Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 142–143. ISBN9780521002301.
  • Sfameni, Carla (2004). « Residential Villas in Late Antique Italiy: Continuity and Change ». In Bowden, William; Lavan, Luke; Machado, Carlos. Recent Research on the Late Antique Countryside. Late Antique Archaeology. 2. Leiden: Brill. pp. 335–375. ISBN9789004136076.
  • Voza, Giuseppe (1982). « Le ville romane del Tellaro e di Patti in Sicilia e il problema dei rapporti con l’Africa ». 150-Jahr-Feier Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Rom: Ansprachen und Vorträge, 4–7 Dezember 1979. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts – Römische Abteilung (in Italian). 25. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. pp. 202–209. ISBN3805305583.
  • Voza, Giuseppe (2003). I mosaici del Tellaro, lusso e cultura nel sud est Sicilia (in Italian). Erre Produzioni. ISBN9788887909067.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Romana_del_Tellaro

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 17 juillet 2018
Publié dans: Ancient Roman villa in Positano, Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public, pompeii roman villa, Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae,, roman villa positano, Senza categoria. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public

Roman Villa of Positano finally opens to the public

The Roman Villa of Positano, on the Amalfi coast, houses archaeological finds of inestimable value like a series of frescoes of the first century AD.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public

Roman Villa of Positano finally opens to the public

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public

BBB2

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman villa in Positano finally opens to the public

villa positano nuove scoperte

In Roman times many villas were built by emperors and wealthy aristocrats along the coastline of the Campania felix: from the Sorrento peninsula to Paestum, including the Amalfi Coast and Capri. They were the so called « villae maritimae », accessible only by the sea, place of otium and exclusive retreat for the most important exponents of the Roman policy and aristocracy.

During the works in both Piazza Flavio Gioia and the crypt of the Church dedicated to Santa Maria Assunta in Positano, have been brought to light the walls and the collapsed roofs of a maritime villa (dating back from the I century BC and the I century AD), damaged before by the earthquake of 62AD and, then, swamped by ash and pumice of the Vesuvius eruption in 79AD. Part of the villa as well as of the sculptural decoration were already discovered in the XVII century and, later, in the second half of the XVIII century by Carlo Weber, the Swiss architect who followed the excavations at Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae by order of Charles of Bourbon. In the twenties of the ‘900 a local butcher, during the works in his shop near the church, brought to life other portions of the villa.

As happened in Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae, the eruptive materials allowed a perfect preservation of the porches, peristyle, various rooms, frescoes and stucco. In particular we can see a wall in opus reticulatum, decorated by a stucco frame and beautiful polychrome frescoes in Pompeian style, depicting a seahorse, an eagle, a Pegasus and two cupids. The depictions are framed by fine architectural backgrounds as a coffered ceiling and a classical architrave.

According to Della Corte’s opinion the Roman villa in Positano belonged to the gladiator Posides Claudi Caesaris libertus (a freedman to whom the emperor Claudius donated the pure lance, as a reward for the conquests against the Britons. If this theory was true, the name of Positano could derive from Posides, as the villa would be considered the « praedium posidetanum » (Posides’s property).

 

https://www.amalficoast.com/p/campania-4/amalfi-coast-1/positano-8/the-roman-villa-in-positano-the-past-that-emerges-2372

 

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 7 juillet 2018
Publié dans: Buste présumé d'Apollodore de Damas daté de 130/140, Glyptothèque de Munich., Marchés de Trajan, marchés de Trajan (Macellum Traiani)N 1regroupent un vaste ensemble de bâtiments datant du iie siècle, construits en hémicycle sur les pentes du Quirinal, à proximité immédiate du forum de, Musée des forums impériaux, Senza categoria. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

Buste présumé d’Apollodore de Damas daté de 130/140, Glyptothèque de Munich.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

Dallage au sol des marchés de Trajan, disposé en Opus spicatum.

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Marchés de Trajan, Rome

 
image illustrative de l’article Marchés de Trajan
Marchés de Trajan
Lieu de construction Regio VIII Forum Romanum
Forums impériaux
Date de construction Entre 109 et 113 apr. J.-C.
Ordonné par Trajan
Le plan de Rome ci-dessous est intemporel.

Planrome3.png

Marchés de Trajan

Localisation du complexe dans la Rome antique (en rouge)
Liste des monuments de la Rome antique

Les marchés de Trajan (Macellum Traiani)N 1regroupent un vaste ensemble de bâtiments datant du iie siècle, construits en hémicycle sur les pentes du Quirinal, à proximité immédiate du forum de Trajan. Contrairement à ce que la dénomination de « marchés » semble indiquer, le complexe n’abrite pas seulement des activités commerciales qui sont représentées entre autres par les boutiques construites le long des rues et couloirs : une grande partie des bâtiments est également occupée par des bureaux administratifs.

Depuis 2007, les vestiges des marchés de Trajan abritent le « Museo dei Fori Imperiali ».

Localisation

Les marchés de Trajan sont situés entre la limite nord-est du forum de Trajan et les pentes du Quirinal, sur l’actuelle Via dei Fori Imperiali, à l’extrémité opposée à celle du Colisée (voir le plan).

Fonction

Le complexe, qui dissimule les traces des travaux d’excavations et retient les pentes du Quirinal, abrite des bureaux occupés par l’administration impériale. Le long des espaces ouverts et des rues desservant le complexe s’ouvrent des boutiques (tabernae). Les deux salles semi-circulaires latérales servaient quant à elles d’écoles ou d’auditoriums. Une partie du complexe central de l’ensemble a pu être occupée par le procurateur du forum du Divin Trajan, cité dans une inscription récemment découverte, qui est probablement responsable de la gestion et de l’entretien du monument. Des fonctionnaires impériaux sont chargés de superviser les approvisionnements en blé, en huile et en vin qui sont ensuite vendus à bas prix ou distribués gratuitement1.

On a longtemps pensé qu’il s’agissait d’un marché (le terme de « marchés de Trajan » date des années 1930), à l’image de nos centres commerciaux actuels, mais des fouilles récentesN 2 amènent à reconsidérer cette dénomination. En effet, l’étroitesse des couloirs et les escaliers d’accès assez raides rendraient difficile la circulation de marchandises.

Histoire

Buste présumé d’Apollodore de Damas daté de 130/140, Glyptothèque de Munich.

Il est possible que le début des travaux d’excavation remontent à la fin du règne de Domitien, mais le complexe a été en grande partie construit en même temps que le forum de Trajan, au début du iie siècle, comme semblent l’indiquer les inscriptions retrouvées sur les briques, datées entre 109 et 113. Les plans de construction peuvent être attribués à l’architecte Apollodore de Damas. L’inauguration du complexe a eu lieu en 113.

Durant le Moyen Âge, les marchés de Trajan ont été modifiés par l’ajout d’étages, encore visibles aujourd’hui, et d’éléments défensifs comme la Torre delle Milizie, construite après 1200, qui surplombe l’édifice. Jusqu’au xive siècle, le complexe est connu sous le nom de Castellum Miliciae.

Plus tard, un couvent est construit dans la même zone, mais il est détruit au début du xxe siècle lors des travaux de restauration des marchés de Trajan.

Architecture

Pour la construction du forum de Trajan, il a été nécessaire de supprimer l’ensellement compris entre les collines du Capitole et du Quirinal, ouvrant un large espace communiquant avec le Champ de Mars, réalisant ainsi un des ambitieux projets d’urbanisme de César. C’est plus de 60 millions de mètres cubes de terre et de roche qui ont été déplacés, permettant l’aplanissement d’une zone d’environ 300 mètres sur 200. La structure en hémicycle concave et en gradins des Marchés de Trajan sert de soubassement et de soutènement à la pente de la colline du Quirinalqui a été creusée et évite les éboulements. Le complexe est aménagé, pour des raisons esthétiques et pratiques, en plusieurs bâtiments de brique organisés en une série de terrasses qui s’élèvent jusqu’au sommet de la colline du Quirinal. Le complexe compte près de 170 pièces différentes. La façade consiste en une grande exèdre en brique, concentrique à l’exèdre septentrionale du forum de Trajan. Une rue pavée de dalles de basalte sépare les deux exèdres.

Plan approximatif des marchés de Trajan et de leur emplacement par rapport au forum de Trajan.

Matériaux

Dallage au sol des marchés de Trajan, disposé en Opus spicatum.

D’un point de vue architectural, ces « marchés » sont remarquables par leurs voûtes cylindriques en tonnelle et par l’emploi de la brique, principal matériau de construction utilisé. Depuis le début du ier siècle, l’opus latericium (briques de terre crue) a peu à peu remplacé toutes les autres matières, liant solidité et commodité d’utilisation. Unie aux deux autres techniques de construction romaine, la clef de voûte et la structure monolithique obtenue avec une coulée de béton de chaux, cette technique a permis de couvrir le grand espace ouvert lors des excavations et de maintenir les pentes de la colline.

Rez-de-chaussée

Au rez-de-chaussée, la façade des marchés est composée de onze boutiques au plafond voûté et de deux entrées à chaque extrémité. Ces tabernae sont peu profondes et s’appuient directement sur la roche. Les portes, à peu près carrées, sont surmontées d’une architrave en travertin. La partie supérieure du mur des boutiques est percée de fenêtres.

Premier étage

Au premier étage, le mur est percé d’une série de fenêtres voûtées (à raison de cinq fenêtres pour trois boutiques du rez-de-chaussée) entourées de piliers de briques avec bases et chapiteaux et surmontées de petits frontons. Elles s’ouvrent sur un couloir voûté passant au-dessus des boutiquesqui dessert à l’intérieur dix autres boutiques. Il s’étend vers le nord, conduisant à un autre couloir flanqué d’un groupe de boutiques.

Deuxième étage

Au deuxième étage de l’hémicycle, une terrasse, située au-dessus du couloir voûté, soutient un groupe de boutiques tournées dans la direction opposée des celles des étages inférieurs. Elles s’ouvrent sur la via Biberatica (nom donné durant le Moyen Âge), une rue longue de 300 mètres environ.

Salles latérales et hall central

Sur les côtés de la façade, au rez-de-chaussée et au premier étage, se trouvent deux salles semi-circulaires, chacune recouverte d’un semi-dôme. La plus grande des deux, au nord, est éclairée par cinq grandes fenêtres. Celle du sud ne dispose que de trois ouvertures. Vers l’ouest, une autre salle semi-circulaire, avec un toit en demi-coupole, est adjacente à celle du niveau inférieur. Un escalier mène de la via Biberatica à un grand hall qui constitue le centre du complexe. La principale entrée se situe sur le côté nord. Ce hall, haut de deux étages, est divisé en deux parties, reliées par une série de six arches. Il contient six boutiques sur chaque côté au rez-de-chaussée.

  • Marchés de Trajan, vus du Forum de Trajan.

  • Marchés de Trajan

  • Vue générale des Marchés de Trajan avec, à gauche, une des salles latérales.

  • Fenêtres du premier étage

  • Entrées de deux boutiques donnant sur la via Biberatica

  • Voûte du grand hall central.

Musée des forums impériaux

Le musée des forums impériaux fait partie des musées municipaux de la ville de Rome. Ouvert en 2007, le musée permet de visiter l’intérieur des marchés de Trajan et présente aux visiteurs des restitutions des bâtiments antiques réalisées à partir de fragments retrouvés sur place et de moulages, ainsi qu’une collection d’objets découverts dans la zone des forums impériaux.

Marchés de Trajan, vue générale.

Notes et références

Notes

  1. ↑ Appellation moderne de l’ensemble des ruines du complexe construit sur les pentes du Quirinal qui date des années 1930.
  2. ↑ Fouilles menées par l’archéologue Lucrezia Ungaro (directrice du Museo dei Fora Imperiali) dont les conclusions ont été rendues publiques en mars 2006 : article sur Philalithia [archive].

Références

  1. ↑ (fr) Luc Duret et Jean-Paul Néraudeau, Urbanisme et métamorphose de la Rome antique, Realia/Les Belles Lettres, (ISBN 2-251-33817-9), p. 119-124

Bibliographie

  • (en) Filippo Coarelli, Rome and Environs: An Archæological Guide, University of California Press,  (ISBN 978-0520079618), p. 121-125 Document utilisé pour la rédaction de l’article

Plan des forums impériaux

Porticus
Curva
Porticus Purpuretica
Secretarium
Senatus
Temple de la
Ville Sacrée
Vicus Cuprius
Arc de
Trajan
Porticus
Absidata
Quadrige
Statue équestre
Temple de
Minerve
Temple
de la Paix
Statue équestre

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/March%C3%A9s_de_Trajan

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com