Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

The Colosseum in Rome, Italy; the classical orders are used, but purely for aesthetic effect.

The Maison Carrée at Nîmes in France, one of the best preserved Roman temples. A mid-sized Augustanprovincial temple of the Imperial cult.

The Alcántara Bridge, Spain, a masterpiece of ancient bridge building

The Baths of Diocletian, Rome

The Severan Basilica in Leptis Magna

An area at the Ostia Anticaarchaeological site: at one time, shops were located here

« Roman baroque », Leptis Magna, Arch of Septimus Severus

Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans,^{[citation needed]} but was different from Greek buildings, becoming a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered one body of classical architecture. Roman architecture flourished in the Roman Republic and even more so under the Empire, when the great majority of surviving buildings were constructed. It used new materials, particularly concrete, and newer technologies such as the archand the dome to make buildings that were typically strong and well-engineered. Large numbers remain in some form across the empire, sometimes complete and still in use to this day.

Roman Architecture covers the period from the establishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to about the 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassified as Late Antique or Byzantine architecture. Almost no substantial examples survive from before about 100 BC, and most of the major survivals are from the later empire, after about 100 AD. Roman architectural style continued to influence building in the former empire for many centuries, and the style used in Western Europe beginning about 1000 is called Romanesque architecture to reflect this dependence on basic Roman forms.

The Romans only began to achieve significant originality in architecture around the beginning of the Imperial period, after they had combined aspects of their original Etruscan architecture with others taken from Greece,^{[citation needed]}including most elements of the style we now call classical architecture. They moved from trabeated construction mostly based on columns and lintels to one based on massive walls, punctuated by arches, and later domes, both of which greatly developed under the Romans. The classical orders now became largely decorative rather than structural, except in colonnades. Stylistic developments included the Tuscan and Compositeorders; the first being a shortened, simplified variant on the Doric order and the Composite being a tall order with the floral decoration of the Corinthian and the scrolls of the Ionic.^{[citation needed]} The period from roughly 40 BC to about 230 AD saw most of the greatest achievements, before the Crisis of the Third Century and later troubles reduced the wealth and organizing power of the central government.

The Romans produced massive public buildings and works of civil engineering, and were responsible for significant developments in housing and public hygiene, for example their public and private baths and latrines, under-floor heating in the form of the hypocaust, micaglazing (examples in Ostia Antica), and piped hot and cold water (examples in Pompeii and Ostia).

Overview

Despite the technical developments of the Romans, which took their buildings far away from the basic Greek conception where columns were needed to support heavy beams and roofs, they were very reluctant to abandon the classical orders in formal public buildings, even though these had become essentially decorative^{[citation needed]}. However, they did not feel entirely restricted by Greek aestheticconcerns, and treated the orders with considerable freedom.^{[citation needed]}

Innovation started in the 3rd or 2nd century BC with the development of Roman concrete as a readily available adjunct to, or substitute for, stone and brick. More daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete’s strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment.

Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing infrastructure for public use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and Colosseum. These were reproduced at a smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the town walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis, now northern Spain. The administrative structure and wealth of the empire made possible very large projects even in locations remote from the main centres,^[1]as did the use of slave labour, both skilled and unskilled.

Especially under the empire, architecture often served a political function, demonstrating the power of the Roman state in general, and of specific individuals responsible for building. Roman architecture perhaps reached its peak in the reign of Hadrian, whose many achievements include rebuilding the Pantheon in its current form and leaving his mark on the landscape of northern Britain with Hadrian’s Wall.

Origins

While borrowing much from the preceding Etruscan architecture, such as the use of hydraulics and the construction of arches, Roman prestige architecture remained firmly under the spell of Ancient Greek architecture and the classical orders.^[2] This came initially from Magna Graecia, the Greek colonies in southern Italy, and indirectly from Greek influence on the Etruscans, but after the Roman conquest of Greece directly from the best classical and Hellenistic examples in the Greek world.^{[citation needed]} The influence is evident in many ways; for example, in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as a place and manner of dining. Roman builders employed Greeks in many capacities, especially in the great boom in construction in the early Empire.^{[citation needed]}

Roman Architectural Revolution

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

The Roman Pantheon was the largest dome in the world for more than a millennium.^[3] It is the largest unreinforced solid concrete dome to this day^[4]

The Roman Architectural Revolution, also known as the Concrete Revolution,^[5][6][7]was the widespread use in Roman architecture of the previously little-used architectural forms of the arch, vault, and dome. For the first time in history, their potential was fully exploited in the construction of a wide range of civil engineering structures, public buildings, and military facilities. These included amphitheatres, aqueducts, baths, bridges, circuses, dams, domes, harbours, temples, and theatres.

A crucial factor in this development, which saw a trend toward monumental architecture, was the invention of Roman concrete (opus caementicium), which led to the liberation of shapes from the dictates of the traditional materials of stone and brick.^[8]

These enabled the building of the many aqueducts throughout the empire, such as the Aqueduct of Segovia, the Pont du Gard, and the eleven aqueducts of Rome. The same concepts produced numerous bridges, some of which are still in daily use, for example the Puente Romano at Mérida in Spain, and the Pont Julien and the bridge at Vaison-la-Romaine, both in Provence, France.^{[citation needed]}

The dome permitted construction of vaulted ceilings without crossbeams and made possible large covered public space such as public baths and basilicas, such as Hadrian’s Pantheon, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, all in Rome.^{[citation needed]}

The Romans first adopted the arch from the Etruscans, and implemented it in their own building. The use of arches that spring directly from the tops of columns was a Roman development, seen from the 1st century AD, that was very widely adopted in medieval Western, Byzantine and Islamic architecture.^{[citation needed]}

Domes

 History of Roman and Byzantine domes

 List of Roman domes

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

Dome of the Pantheon, inner view

The Romans were the first builders in the history of architecture to realize the potential of domes for the creation of large and well-defined interior spaces.^[9]Domes were introduced in a number of Roman building types such as temples, thermae, palaces, mausoleaand later also churches. Half-domes also became a favoured architectural element and were adopted as apses in Christian sacred architecture.

Monumental domes began to appear in the 1st century BC in Romeand the provinces around the Mediterranean Sea. Along with vaults, they gradually replaced the traditional post and lintel construction which makes use of the column and architrave. The construction of domes was greatly facilitated by the invention of concrete, a process which has been termed the Roman Architectural Revolution.^[10] Their enormous dimensions remained unsurpassed until the introduction of structural steel frames in the late 19th century (see List of the world’s largest domes).^[9][11][12]

Influence on later architecture

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

Palladian Stowe House, by William Kent

Roman architecture supplied the basic vocabulary of Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque architecture, and spread across Christian Europe well beyond the old frontiers of the empire, to Irelandand Scandinavia for example. In the East, Byzantine architecturedeveloped new styles of churches, but most other buildings remained very close to Late Roman forms. The same can be said in turn of Islamic architecture, where Roman forms long continued, especially in private buildings such as houses and the Turkish bath, and civil engineering such as fortifications and bridges.

In Europe the Italian Renaissance saw a conscious revival of correct classical styles, initially purely based on Roman examples. Vitruviuswas respectfully reinterpreted by a series of architectural writers, and the Tuscan and Composite orders formalized for the first time, to give five rather than three orders. After the flamboyance of Baroque architecture, the Neoclassical architecture of the 18th century revived purer versions of classical style, and for the first time added direct influence from the Greek world.

Numerous local classical styles developed, such as Palladian architecture, Georgian architecture and Regency architecture in the English-speaking world, Federal architecture in the United States, and later Stripped Classicism and PWA Moderne.

Roman influences may be found around us today, in banks, government buildings, great houses, and even small houses, perhaps in the form of a porch with Doric columns and a pediment or in a fireplace or a mosaic shower floor derived from a Roman original, often from Pompeii or Herculaneum. The mighty pillars, domes and arches of Rome echo in the New World too, where in Washington, D.C. stand the Capitol building, the White House, the Lincoln Memorial, and other government buildings. All across the US the seats of regional government were normally built in the grand traditions of Rome, with vast flights of stone steps sweeping up to towering pillared porticoes, with huge domes gilded or decorated inside with the same or similar themes that were popular in Rome.

In Britain, a similar enthusiasm has seen the construction of thousands of neo-Classical buildings over the last five centuries, both civic and domestic, and many of the grandest country houses and mansions are purely Classical in style, an obvious example being Buckingham Palace.

Materials

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

Frigidarium of Baths of Diocletian, today Santa Maria degli Angeli

Stone

Marble is not found especially close to Rome, and was only rarely used there before Augustus, who famously boasted that he had found Rome made of brick and left it made of marble, though this was mainly as a facing for brick or concrete. The Temple of Hercules Victor of the late 2nd century BC is the earliest surviving exception in Rome. From Augustus’ reign the quarries at Carrara were extensively developed for the capital, and other sources around the empire exploited,^[13]especially the prestigious Greek marbles like Parian. Travertinelimestone was found much closer, around Tivoli, and was used from the end of the Republic; the Colosseum is mainly built of this stone, which has good load-bearing capacity, with a brick core.^[14] Other more or less local stones were used around the empire.^[15]

The Romans were extremely fond of luxury imported coloured marbles with fancy veining, and the interiors of the most important buildings were very often faced with slabs of these, which have usually now been removed even where the building survives. Imports from Greece for this purpose began in the 2nd century BC.^[16]

Roman brick

 Roman brick

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

Close-up view of the wall of the Roman shore fort at Burgh Castle, Norfolk, showing alternating courses of flint and brickwork.

The Romans made fired clay bricks from about the beginning of the Empire, replacing earlier sun-dried mud-brick. Roman brick was almost invariably of a lesser height than modern brick, but was made in a variety of different shapes and sizes.^[17]Shapes included square, rectangular, triangular and round, and the largest bricks found have measured over three feet in length.^[18] Ancient Roman bricks had a general size of 1½ Roman feet by 1 Roman foot, but common variations up to 15 inchesexisted. Other brick sizes in ancient Rome included 24″ x 12″ x 4″, and 15″ x 8″ x 10″. Ancient Roman bricks found in France measured 8″ x 8″ x 3″. The Constantine Basilica in Trier is constructed from Roman bricks 15″ square by 1½ » thick.^[19] There is often little obvious difference (particularly when only fragments survive) between Roman bricks used for walls on the one hand, and tiles used for roofing or flooring on the other, so archaeologists sometimes prefer to employ the generic term ceramic building material (or CBM).

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

The St. George Rotunda (4th century) and some remains of Serdicacan be seen in the foreground

The Romans perfected brick-making during the first century of their empire and used it ubiquitously, in public and private construction alike. The Romans took their brickmaking skills everywhere they went, introducing the craft to the local populations.^[19] The Roman legions, which operated their own kilns, introduced bricks to many parts of the empire; bricks are often stamped with the mark of the legion that supervised their production. The use of bricks in southern and western Germany, for example, can be traced back to traditions already described by the Roman architect Vitruvius. In the British Isles, the introduction of Roman brick by the ancient Romans was followed by a 600–700 year gap in major brick production.

Roman concrete

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

Example of opus caementicium on a tomb on the ancient Appian Way in Rome. The original covering has been removed.

Main article: Roman concrete

Concrete quickly supplanted brick as the primary building material,^{[citation needed]} and more daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes rather than dense lines of columns suspending flat architraves. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete’s strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment.^{[citation needed]}Most of these developments are described by Vitruvius, writing in the first century AD in his work De Architectura.

Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in Mesopotamia, Roman architects perfected Roman concrete and used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and support a great deal of weight. The first use of concrete by the Romans was in the town of Cosasometime after 273 BC. Ancient Roman concrete was a mixture of lime mortar, aggregate, pozzolana, water, and stones, and was stronger than previously-used concretes. The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames where they hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or (more frequently) bricks. The aggregates used were often much larger than in modern concrete, amounting to rubble.

When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong, with a rough surface of bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive stucco or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones called revetment. Concrete construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than building solid stone buildings. The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport. The wooden frames could be used more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently. Concrete is arguably the Roman contribution most relevant to modern architecture.

City design

Giacobbe Giusti, Ancient Roman architecture

The Temple of Claudius to the south (left) of the Colosseum (model of Imperial Rome at the Museo della civiltà romana in Rome)

Further information: Centuriation, Decumanus Maximus, and Cardo

The ancient Romans employed regular orthogonal structures on which they molded their colonies.^{[20][21] [22]}They probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples, as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by the Etruscans in Italy.^[23] (see Marzabotto)

The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defense and civil convenience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid of streets, and wrapped in a wall for defense. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets crossed the square grid, passing through the central square. A river usually flowed through the city, providing water, transport, and sewage disposal.^[24] Hundreds of towns and cities were built by the Romans throughout their empire. Many European towns, such as Turin, preserve the remains of these schemes, which show the very logical way the Romans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads were equal in width and length, except for two, which were slightly wider than the others. One of these ran east–west, the other, north–south, and they intersected in the middle to form the center of the grid. All roads were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller, hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were constructed where needed. Each square marked off by four roads was called an insula, the Roman equivalent of a modern city block.

Model of the 1st century Philippopolis(Plovdiv) in the Roman period created by arch. Matey Mateev

Each insula was 80 yards (73 m) square, with the land within it divided. As the city developed, each insula would eventually be filled with buildings of various shapes and sizes and crisscrossed with back roads and alleys. Most insulae were given to the first settlers of a Roman city, but each person had to pay to construct his own house.

The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from invaders and to mark the city limits. Areas outside city limits were left open as farmland. At the end of each main road was a large gateway with watchtowers. A portcullis covered the opening when the city was under siege, and additional watchtowers were constructed along the city walls. An aqueduct was built outside the city walls.

The development of Greek and Roman urbanization is relatively well-known, as there are relatively many written sources, and there has been much attention to the subject, since the Romans and Greeks are generally regarded as the main ancestors of modern Western culture. It should not be forgotten, though, that the Etruscans had many considerable towns and there were also other cultures with more or less urban settlements in Europe, primarily of Celtic origin.^[25]

Amphitheatre

 Roman amphitheatre

 List of Roman amphitheatres

The amphitheatre was, with the triumphal arch and basilica, the only major new type of building developed by the Romans.^[26] Some of the most impressive secular buildings are the amphitheatres, over 200 being known and many of which are well preserved, such as that at Arles, as well as its progenitor, the Colosseum in Rome. They were used for gladiatorial contests, public displays, public meetings and bullfights, the tradition of which still survives in Spain. Their typical shape, functions and name distinguish them from Roman theatres, which are more or less semicircular in shape; from the circuses (akin to hippodromes) whose much longer circuits were designed mainly for horse or chariot racing events; and from the smaller stadia, which were primarily designed for athletics and footraces.^[27]

The Amphitheatre of Pompeii, built around 70 BC and buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius 79 AD, once hosted spectacles with gladiators

The earliest Roman amphitheatres date from the middle of the first century BC, but most were built under Imperial rule, from the Augustan period (27 BC–14 AD) onwards.^[28] Imperial amphitheatres were built throughout the Roman empire; the largest could accommodate 40,000–60,000 spectators, and the most elaborate featured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were elaborately decorated with marble, stucco and statuary.^[29] After the end of gladiatorial games in the 5th century and of animal killings in the 6th, most amphitheatres fell into disrepair, and their materials were mined or recycled. Some were razed, and others converted into fortifications. A few continued as convenient open meeting places; in some of these, churches were sited.^[30]

Architecturally, they are typically an example of the Roman use of the classical orders to decorate large concrete walls pierced at intervals, where the columns have nothing to support. Aesthetically, however, the formula is successful.

Basilica

Northern aisle of the Basilica of Maxentius in Rome

The Aula Palatina of Trier, Germany(then part of the Roman province of Gallia Belgica), built during the reign of Constantine I (r. 306-337 AD)

The Roman basilica was a large public building where business or legal matters could be transacted. They were normally where the magistrates held court, and used for other official ceremonies, having many of the functions of the modern town hall. The first basilicas had no religious function at all. As early as the time of Augustus, a public basilica for transacting business had been part of any settlement that considered itself a city, used in the same way as the late medieval covered market houses of northern Europe, where the meeting room, for lack of urban space, was set above the arcades, however. Although their form was variable, basilicas often contained interior colonnades that divided the space, giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides, with an apse at one end (or less often at each end), where the magistrates sat, often on a slightly raised dais. The central aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could penetrate through the clerestory windows.

The oldest known basilica, the Basilica Porcia, was built in Rome in 184 BC by Cato the Elder during the time he was Censor. Other early examples include the basilica at Pompeii (late 2nd century BC). After Christianity became the official religion, the basilica shape was found appropriate for the first large public churches, with the attraction of avoiding reminiscences of the Greco-Roman temple form.

Circus

The Roman circus was a large open-air venue used for public events in the ancient Roman Empire. The circuses were similar to the ancient Greek hippodromes, although circuses served varying purposes and differed in design and construction. Along with theatres and amphitheatres, Circuses were one of the main entertainment sites of the time. Circuses were venues for chariot races, horse races, and performances that commemorated important events of the empire were performed there. For events that involved re-enactments of naval battles, the circus was flooded with water.

The performance space of the Roman circus was normally, despite its name, an oblong rectangle of two linear sections of race track, separated by a median strip running along the length of about two thirds the track, joined at one end with a semicircular section and at the other end with an undivided section of track closed (in most cases) by a distinctive starting gate known as the carceres, thereby creating a circuit for the races.

Forum

 Roman Forum and List of monuments of the Roman Forum

The Roman Forum

A forum was a central public open space in a Romanmunicipium, or any civitas, primarily used as a marketplace, along with the buildings used for shops and the stoas used for open stalls. Other large public buildings were often sited at the edges or close by. Many forums were constructed at remote locations along a road by the magistrate responsible for the road, in which case the forum was the only settlement at the site and had its own name, such as Forum Popili or Forum Livi.^[31]

During the years of the Republic, Augustus claimed he « found the city in brick and left it in marble ».^[32] While chances are high that this was an exaggeration, there is something to be said for the influx of marble use in Roman Forum from 63 BC onwards. During Augustus reign, the Forum was described to have been « a larger, freer space than was the Forum of imperial times. »^[33] The Forum began to take on even more changes upon the arrival of Julius Casear who drew out extensive plans for the market hub. While Casear’s death came prematurely, the ideas himself, as well as Augustus had in regards to the Forum proved to be the most influential for years to come. According to Walter Dennison’s The Roman Forum As Cicero Saw It, the author writes that « the diverting of public business to the larger and splendid imperial fora erected in the vicinity resulted in leaving the general design of the Forum Romanum ».^[33]

Every city had at least one forum of varying size. In addition to its standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gathering place of great social significance, and often the scene of diverse activities, including political discussions and debates, rendezvous, meetings, etc. Much the best known example is the Roman Forum, the earliest of several in Rome.

In new Roman towns the forum was usually located at, or just off, the intersection of the main north-south and east-west streets (the cardoand decumanus). All forums would have a Temple of Jupiter at the north end, and would also contain other temples, as well as the basilica; a public weights and measures table, so customers at the market could ensure they were not being sold short measures; and would often have the baths nearby.

A panoramic view of the Forum Trajanum, with the Trajan’s Column on the far left.

Horreum

The Horrea Epagathiana et Epaphroditiana, a horreum in Ostia (Rome), Italy, built c. 145-150 AD

A horreum was a type of public warehouse used during the ancient Roman period. Although the Latin term is often used to refer to granaries, Roman horrea were used to store many other types of consumables; the giant Horrea Galbae in Rome were used not only to store grain but also olive oil, wine, foodstuffs, clothing and even marble.^[34] By the end of the imperial period, the city of Rome had nearly 300 horrea to supply its demands.^[35] The biggest were enormous, even by modern standards; the Horrea Galbae contained 140 rooms on the ground floor alone, covering an area of some 225,000 square feet (21,000 m²).^[36]

The first horrea were built in Rome towards the end of the 2nd century BC,^[37] with the first known public horreum being constructed by the ill-fated tribune, Gaius Gracchus in 123 BC.^[38] The word came to be applied to any place designated for the preservation of goods; thus it was often used refer to cellars (horrea subterranea), but it could also be applied to a place where artworks were stored,^[39] or even to a library.^[40] Some public horrea functioned somewhat like banks, where valuables could be stored, but the most important class of horrea were those where foodstuffs such as grain and olive oil were stored and distributed by the state.^[41]

The word itself is thought to have linguist roots tied to the word hordeum which in Latin means ‘barley’.^[42] In the John’s Hopkin’s University Press, The Classical Weekly states that « Pliny the Elder does indeed make a distinction between the two words. He describes the horreum as a structure made of brick, the walls of which were not less than three feet thick; it had no windows or openings for ventilation ».^[43] Furthermore, the storehouses would also host oil and wine and also utilize large jars that could serve as cache’s for large amounts of products.These storehouses were also used to house keep large sums of money and were used much like personal storage units today are. Romans were « These horrea were divided and subdivided, so that one could hire only so much space as one wanted, a whole room (cella), a closet (armarium), or only a chest or strong box (arca, arcula, locus, loculus). »^[43]

Insula

 Insula (building)

Insula in Ostia Antica

Multi-story apartment blocks called insulae catered to a range of residential needs. The cheapest rooms were at the top owing to the inability to escape in the event of a fire and the lack of piped water. Windows were mostly small, facing the street, with iron security bars. Insulae were often dangerous, unhealthy, and prone to fires because of overcrowding and haphazard cooking arrangements.^{[citation needed]} There are examples in the Roman port town of Ostia, that date back to the reign of Trajan, but they seem to have been found only in Rome and a few other places. Elsewhere writers report them as something remarkable, but Livy and Vituvius refer to them in Rome.^[44] External walls were in « Opus Reticulatum » and interiors in « Opus Incertum », which would then be plastered and sometimes painted.

To lighten up the small dark rooms, tenants able to afford a degree of painted colourful murals on the walls. Examples have been found of jungle scenes with wild animals and exotic plants. Imitation windows (trompe l’oeil) were sometimes painted to make the rooms seem less confined.

Ancient Rome had elaborate and luxurious houses owned by the elite. The average house, or in cities apartment, of a commoner or plebe did not contain many luxuries. The domus, or single-family residence, was only for the well-off in Rome, with most having a layout of the closed unit, consisting of one or two rooms. Between 312 and 315 A.D. Rome had 1781 domus and 44,850 of insulae.^[45]

Insulae have been the subject of great debate for historians of Roman culture, defining the various meanings of the word.^[46] Insula was a word used to describe apartment buildings, or the apartments themselves,^[47] meaning apartment, or inhabitable room, demonstrating just how small apartments for Plebes were. Urban divisions were originally street blocks, and later began to divide into smaller divisions, the word insula referring to both blocks and smaller divisions. The insula contained cenacula, tabernae, storage rooms under the stairs, and lower floor shops. Another type of housing unit for Plebes was a cenaculum, an apartment, divided into three individual rooms: cubiculum, exedra, and medianum. Common Roman apartments were mainly masses of smaller and larger structures, many with narrow balconies that present mysteries as to their use, having no doors to access them, and they lacked the excessive decoration and display of wealth that aristocrats’ houses contained. Luxury in houses was not common, as the life of the average person did not consist of being in their houses, as they instead would go to public baths, and engage in other communal activities.

Lighthouses

Roman lighthouse

The Tower of Hercules, a Roman lighthouse in Spain

Many lighthouses were built around the Mediterranean and the coasts of the empire, including the Tower of Herculesat A Coruña in northern Spain, a structure which survives to this day. A smaller lighthouse at Dover, England also exists as a ruin about half the height of the original. The light would have been provided by a fire at the top of the structure.

Ruins of the Roman Thermae in Varna, Bulgaria

Thermae

 Thermae

 List of Roman public baths

All Roman cities had at least one thermae, a popular facility for public bathing, exercising and socializing. Exercise might include wrestling and weight-lifting, as well as swimming. Bathing was an important part of the Roman day, where some hours might be spent, at a very low cost subsidized by the government. Wealthier Romans were often accompanied by one or more slaves, who performed any required tasks such as fetching refreshment, guarding valuables, providing towels, and at the end of the session, applying olive oil to their masters’ bodies which was then scraped off with a strigil, a scraper made of wood or bone. Romans did not wash with soap and water as we do now.

Roman bath-houses were also provided for private villas, town housesand forts. They were normally supplied with water from an adjacent river or stream, or by aqueduct. The design of thermae is discussed by Vitruvius in De Architectura.

Temples

 Roman temple

« Roman Baroque » Temple of Bacchus at Baalbek, Lebanon

Roman temples were among the most important and richest buildings in Roman culture, though only a few survive in any sort of complete state. Their construction and maintenance was a major part of ancient Roman religion, and all towns of any importance had at least one main temple, as well as smaller shrines. The main room (cella) housed the cult image of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated, and often a small altar for incense or libations. Behind the cella was a room or rooms used by temple attendants for storage of equipment and offerings.

Some remains of many Roman temples survive, above all in Rome itself, but the relatively few near-complete examples were nearly all converted to Christian churches (and sometimes subsequently to mosques), usually a considerable time after the initial triumph of Christianity under Constantine. The decline of Roman religion was relatively slow, and the temples themselves were not appropriated by the government until a decree of the Emperor Honorius in 415. Some of the oldest surviving temples include the Temple of Hercules Victor(mid 2nd century BC) and Temple of Portunus (120-80 BC), both standing within the Forum Boarium.

The Temple of Hercules Victor, Rome, built in the mid-2nd century BC, most likely by Lucius Mummius Achaicus, who won the Achaean War.

The form of the Roman temple was mainly derived from the Etruscan model, but using Greek styles^{[citation needed]}. Roman temples emphasised the front of the building, which followed Greek temple models and typically consisted of wide steps leading to a portico with columns, a pronaos, and usually a triangular pedimentabove, which was filled with statuary in the most grand examples; this was as often in terracotta as stone, and no examples have survived except as fragments. However, unlike the Greek models, which generally gave equal treatment to all sides of the temple, which could be viewed and approached from all directions, the sides and rear of Roman temples might be largely undecorated (as in the Pantheon, Rome and Vic), inaccessible by steps (as in the Maison Carrée and Vic), and even back on to other buildings. As in the Maison Carrée, columns at the side might be half-columns, emerging from (« engaged with » in architectural terminology) the wall.^[48] The platform on which the temple sat was typically raised higher in Roman examples than Greek, with up ten or twelve or more steps rather than the three typical in Greek temples; the Temple of Claudius was raised twenty steps. These steps were normally only at the front, and typically not the whole width of that.

The Temple of Portunus, god of grain storage, keys, livestock and ports.^[49] Rome, built between 120–80 BC

The Greek classical orders in all their details were closely followed in the façades of temples, as in other prestigious buildings. However the idealized proportions between the different elements set out by the only significant Roman writer on architecture to survive, Vitruvius, and subsequent Italian Renaissance writers, do not reflect actual Roman practice, which could be very variable, though always aiming at balance and harmony. Following a Hellenistic trend, the Corinthian order and its variant the Composite order were most common in surviving Roman temples, but for small temples like that at Alcántara, a simple Tuscan order could be used.^[50]

There was considerable local variation in style, as Roman architects often tried to incorporate elements the population expected in its sacred architecture. This was especially the case in Egypt and the Near East, where different traditions of large stone temples were already millennia old. The Romano-Celtic temple was a simple style for small temples found in the Western Empire, and by far the most common type in Roman Britain. It often lacked any of the distinctive classical features, and may have had considerable continuity with pre-Roman temples of the Celtic religion.

Theatres

Roman Theatre (Mérida), Spain

Plovdiv Roman theatre, Bulgaria

Roman theatres were built in all areas of the empire from Spain, to the Middle East. Because of the Romans’ ability to influence local architecture, we see numerous theatres around the world with uniquely Roman attributes.^[51]

These buildings were semi-circular and possessed certain inherent architectural structures, with minor differences depending on the region in which they were constructed. The scaenae frons was a high back wall of the stage floor, supported by columns. The proscaeniumwas a wall that supported the front edge of the stage with ornately decorated niches off to the sides. The Hellenistic influence is seen through the use of the proscaenium. The Roman theatre also had a podium, which sometimes supported the columns of the scaenae frons. The scaenae was originally not part of the building itself, constructed only to provide sufficient background for the actors. Eventually, it became a part of the edifice itself, made out of concrete. The theatre itself was divided into the stage (orchestra) and the seating section (auditorium). Vomitoria or entrances and exits were made available to the audience.^[52]

Villa

Villa of the Mysteries just outside Pompeii, seen from above

Main article: Roman villa

See also: Villa rustica, List of Roman villas in England, and List of Roman villas in Belgium

A Roman villa was a country house built for the upper class, while a domus was a wealthy family’s house in a town. The Empire contained many kinds of villas, not all of them lavishly appointed with mosaic floors and frescoes. In the provinces, any country house with some decorative features in the Roman style may be called a « villa » by modern scholars.^[53] Some were pleasure palaces such as those— like Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli— that were situated in the cool hills within easy reach of Rome or— like the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum— on picturesque sites overlooking the Bay of Naples. Some villas were more like the country houses of England or Poland, the visible seat of power of a local magnate, such as the famous palace rediscovered at Fishbourne in Sussex.

Suburban villas on the edge of cities were also known, such as the Middle and Late Republican villas that encroached on the Campus Martius, at that time on the edge of Rome, and which can be also seen outside the city walls of Pompeii, including the Villa of the Mysteries, famous for its frescos. These early suburban villas, such as the one at Rome’s Auditorium site^[54] or at Grottarossa in Rome, demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of the villa suburbana in Central Italy. It is possible that these early, suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power (maybe even palaces) of regional strongmen or heads of important families (gentes).

A third type of villa provided the organizational center of the large farming estates called latifundia; such villas might be lacking in luxuries. By the 4th century, villa could simply mean an agricultural estate or holding: Jerome translated the Gospel of Mark (xiv, 32) chorion, describing the olive grove of Gethsemane, with villa, without an inference that there were any dwellings there at all (Catholic Encyclopedia « Gethsemane »).

With the colossal Diocletian’s Palace, built in the countryside but later turned into a fortified city, a form of residential castle emerges, that anticipates the Middle Ages.

Watermills

List of ancient watermills

The initial invention of the watermill appears to have occurred in the hellenized eastern Mediterranean in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great and the rise of Hellenistic science and technology.^[55][56][57] In the subsequent Roman era, the use of water-power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical water wheelas well as the horizontal water wheel.^[58][59] Apart from its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also applied to pounding grain,^[60][61][62] crushing ore,^[63] sawing stones^[64] and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces.^[65]

Decorative structures

Monoliths

 List of ancient Greek and Roman monoliths

‘

The capital of Trajan’s Column, Rome

In architecture, a monolith is a structure which has been excavated as a unit from a surrounding matrix or outcropping of rock.^[66] Monoliths are found in all types of Roman buildings. They were either: quarried without being moved; or quarried and moved; or quarried, moved and lifted clear off the ground into their position (e.g. architraves); or quarried, moved and erected in an upright position (e.g. columns).

Transporting was done by land or water (or a combination of both), in the later case often by special-built ships such as obelisk carriers.^[67]For lifting operations, ancient cranes were employed since ca. 515 BC,^[68] such as in the construction of Trajan’s Column.^[69]

Obelisks

 List of obelisks in Rome

Obelisco Sallustiano in front of the church of Trinità dei Monti in Rome

An obelisk is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top. These were originally called « tekhenu » by the builders, the ancient Egyptians. The Greeks who saw them used the Greek ‘obeliskos’ to describe them, and this word passed into Latin and then English.^[70] The Romans commissioned obelisks in an ancient Egyptian style. Examples include:

• Arles, France – the Arles Obelisk, in Place de la République, a 4th-century obelisk of Romanorigin
• Benevento, Italy – three Roman obelisks^[71][72]
• Munich – obelisk of Titus Sextius Africanus, Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, Kunstareal, 1st century AD, 5.80 m
• Rome – there are five ancient Roman obelisks in Rome.

Roman gardens

Gardens in Conimbriga, Portugal

Roman gardens were influenced by Egyptian, Persian, and Greek gardening techniques^{[citation needed]}. In Ancient Latium, a garden was part of every farm. According to Cato the Elder, every garden should be close to the house and should have flower beds and ornamental trees.^[73] Horace wrote that during his time flower gardens became a national indulgence.^[74]

Gardens were not reserved for the extremely wealthy. Excavations in Pompeii show that gardens attaching to residences were scaled down to meet the space constraints of the home of the average Roman. Modified versions of Roman garden designs were adopted in Roman settlements in Africa, Gaul, and Britannia. As town houses were replaced by tall insula (apartment buildings), these urban gardens were replaced by window boxes or roof gardens.^{[citation needed]}

Triumphal arch

List of Roman triumphal arches

The Arch of Titus in Rome, an early Roman imperial triumphal arch with a single archway

Titus‘ triumphal procession depicted on the Arch of Titus, showing the loot captured from Jerusalem in 81 AD

A triumphal arch is a monumental structure in the shape of an archwaywith one or more arched passageways, often designed to span a road. The origins of the Roman triumphal arch are unclear. There were precursors to the triumphal arch within the Roman world; in Italy, the Etruscans used elaborately decorated single bay arches as gates or portals to their cities. Surviving examples of Etruscan arches can still be seen at Perugia and Volterra.^[75] The two key elements of the triumphal arch – a round-topped arch and a square entablature – had long been in use as separate architectural elements in ancient Greece.

The innovation of the Romans was to use these elements in a single free-standing structure. The columns became purely decorative elements on the outer face of arch, while the entablature, liberated from its role as a building support, became the frame for the civic and religious messages that the arch builders wished to convey.^[76] Little is known about how the Romans viewed triumphal arches. Pliny the Elder, writing in the first century AD, was the only ancient author to discuss them.^[77] He wrote that they were intended to « elevate above the ordinary world » an image of an honoured person usually depicted in the form of a statue with a quadriga.^[77]

The first recorded Roman triumphal arches were set up in the time of the Roman Republic.^[78] Generals who were granted a triumph were termed triumphators and would erect fornices or honorific arches bearing statues to commemorate their victories.^[79] Roman triumphal practices changed significantly at the start of the imperial period when the first Roman Emperor Augustus decreed that only emperors would be granted triumphs. The triumphal arch changed from being a personal monument to being an essentially propagandistic one, serving to announce and promote the presence of the ruler and the laws of the state.^[75] Arches were not necessarily built as entrances, but – unlike many modern triumphal arches – they were often erected across roads and were intended to be passed through, not round.^[80]

Most Roman triumphal arches were built during the imperial period. By the fourth century AD there were 36 such arches in Rome, of which three have survived – the Arch of Titus (AD 81), the Arch of Septimius Severus (203-205) and the Arch of Constantine (312). Numerous arches were built elsewhere in the Roman Empire.^[78] The single arch was the most common, but many triple arches were also built, of which the Triumphal Arch of Orange (circa AD 21) is the earliest surviving example. From the 2nd century AD, many examples of the arcus quadrifrons – a square triumphal arch erected over a crossroads, with arched openings on all four sides – were built, especially in North Africa. Arch-building in Rome and Italy diminished after the time of Trajan (AD 98-117) but remained widespread in the provinces during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD; they were often erected to commemorate imperial visits.^[79]

The Arch of Augustus in Rimini(Ariminum), dedicated to Augustus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC, the oldest surviving Roman triumphal arch

The ornamentation of an arch was intended to serve as a constant visual reminder of the triumph and triumphator. The façade was ornamented with marble columns, and the piers and attics with decorative cornices. Sculpted panels depicted victories and achievements, the deeds of the triumphator, the captured weapons of the enemy or the triumphal procession itself. The spandrels usually depicted flying Victories, while the attic was often inscribed with a dedicatory inscription naming and praising the triumphator. The piers and internal passageways were also decorated with reliefs and free-standing sculptures. The vault was ornamented with coffers. Some triumphal arches were surmounted by a statue or a currus triumphalis, a group of statues depicting the emperor or general in a quadriga.^[75][79]

Inscriptions on Roman triumphal arches were works of art in themselves, with very finely cut, sometimes gilded letters. The form of each letter and the spacing between them was carefully designed for maximum clarity and simplicity, without any decorative flourishes, emphasizing the Roman taste for restraint and order. This conception of what later became the art of typography remains of fundamental importance down to the present day.^[80]

Victory columns

 List of Roman victory columns

Infrastructure

A Roman street in Pompeii

Roads

Roman roads were vital to the maintenance and development of the Roman state, and were built from about 500 BC through the expansion and consolidation of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.^[81] They provided efficient means for the overland movement of armies, officials and civilians, and the inland carriage of official communications andtrade goods.^[82] At the peak of Rome’s development, no fewer than 29 great military highways radiated from the capital, and the Late Empire’s 113 provinces were interconnected by 372 great road links.^[83][84] Roman road builders aimed at a regulation width (see Laws and standards above), but actual widths have been measured at between 3.6 ft (1.1 m) and more than 23 ft (7.0 m). Today, the concrete has worn from the spaces around the stones, giving the impression of a very bumpy road, but the original practice was to produce a surface that was no doubt much closer to being flat.

Aqueduct

Roman aqueduct

 List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire

The Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain

The Pont du Gard, near Vers-Pont-du-Gard, France

The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts in order to bring water from distant sources into their cities and towns, supplying public baths, latrines, fountains and private households. Waste water was removed by complex sewage systems and released into nearby bodies of water, keeping the towns clean and free from effluent. Aqueducts also provided water for mining operations, milling, farms and gardens.

Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, being constructed along a slight downward gradient within conduits of stone, brick or concrete. Most were buried beneath the ground, and followed its contours; obstructing peaks were circumvented or, less often, tunnelled through. Where valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit was carried on bridgework, or its contents fed into high-pressure lead, ceramic or stone pipes and siphoned across. Most aqueduct systems included sedimentation tanks, sluices and distribution tanks to regulate the supply at need.

Rome‘s first aqueduct supplied a water-fountain sited at the city’s cattle market. By the third century AD, the city had eleven aqueducts, sustaining a population of over a million in a water-extravagant economy; most of the water supplied the city’s many public baths. Cities and municipalities throughout the Roman Empire emulated this model, and funded aqueducts as objects of public interest and civic pride, « an expensive yet necessary luxury to which all could, and did, aspire. »^[85]

Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable, and durable; some were maintained into the early modern era, and a few are still partly in use. Methods of aqueduct surveying and construction are noted by Vitruvius in his work De Architectura (1st century BC). The general Frontinus gives more detail in his official report on the problems, uses and abuses of Imperial Rome’s public water supply. Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include the supporting piers of the Aqueduct of Segovia, and the aqueduct-fed cisterns of Constantinople.

Bridges

The Alcántara Bridge, Spain, a masterpiece of ancient bridge building

Main article: Roman bridge

Further information: List of Roman bridges

Roman bridges, built by ancient Romans, were the first large and lasting bridges built.^[86] Roman bridges were built with stone and had the arch as the basic structure (see arch bridge). Most utilized concrete as well, which the Romans were the first to use for bridges.

Roman arch bridges were usually semicircular, although a few were segmental (such as Alconétar Bridge). A segmental arch is an arch that is less than a semicircle.^[87] The advantages of the segmentalarch bridge were that it allowed great amounts of flood water to pass under it, which would prevent the bridge from being swept away during floods and the bridge itself could be more lightweight. Generally, Roman bridges featured wedge-shaped primary arch stones (voussoirs) of the same in size and shape. The Romans built both single spans and lengthy multiple arch aqueducts, such as the Pont du Gard and Segovia Aqueduct. Their bridges featured from an early time onwards flood openings in the piers, e.g. in the Pons Fabricius in Rome (62 BC), one of the world’s oldest major bridges still standing. Roman engineers were the first and until the industrial revolution the only ones to construct bridges with concrete, which they called Opus caementicium. The outside was usually covered with brick or ashlar, as in the Alcántara bridge.

The Romans also introduced segmental arch bridges into bridge construction. The 330 m long Limyra Bridge in southwestern Turkeyfeatures 26 segmental arches with an average span-to-rise ratio of 5.3:1,^[88] giving the bridge an unusually flat profile unsurpassed for more than a millennium. Trajan’s bridge over the Danube featured open-spandrel segmental arches made of wood (standing on 40 m high concrete piers). This was to be the longest arch bridge for a thousand years both in terms of overall and individual span length, while the longest extant Roman bridge is the 790 m long Puente Romano at Mérida.

Canals

 List of Roman canals

Roman canals were typically multi-purpose structures, intended for irrigation, drainage, land reclamation, flood control and navigationwhere feasible. Some navigational canals were recorded by ancient geographers and are still traceable by modern archaeology. Channels which served the needs of urban water supply are covered at the List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire.

Cisterns[edit]

 List of Roman cisterns

The Basilica Cistern in Constantinople provided water for the Imperial Palace.

Freshwater reservoirs were commonly set up at the termini of aqueducts and their branch lines, supplying urban households, agricultural estates, imperial palaces, thermae or naval bases of the Roman navy.^[89]

Dams

Further information: List of Roman dams and reservoirs

Roman dam construction began in earnest in the early imperial period.^[90] For the most part, it concentrated on the semi-arid fringe of the empire, namely the provinces of North Africa, the Near East, and Hispania.^{[91] [92][93]} The relative abundance of Spanish dams below is due partly to more intensive field work there; for Italy only the Subiaco Dams, created by emperor Nero (54–68 AD) for recreational purposes, are attested.^[94][90] These dams are noteworthy, though, for their extraordinary height, which remained unsurpassed anywhere in the world until the Late Middle Ages.^[90]

The most frequent dam types were earth- or rock-filled embankment dams and masonry gravity dams.^[95] These served a wide array of purposes, such as irrigation, flood control, river diversion, soil-retention, or a combination of these functions.^[96] The impermeability of Roman dams was increased by the introduction of waterproof hydraulic mortar and especially opus caementicium in the Concrete Revolution. These materials also allowed for bigger structures to be built,^[97] like the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier today,^[98] and the sturdy Harbaqa Dam, both of which consist of a concrete core.

Roman builders were the first to realize the stabilizing effect of archesand buttresses, which they integrated into their dam designs. Previously unknown dam types introduced by the Romans include arch-gravity dams,^[93][99] arch dams,;^{[100][101][102] [103][104]} buttress dams,^[105] and multiple-arch buttress dams.^{[106][107][99][108]}

Defensive walls

Roman walls of Lugo, Spain

The Porta Nigra of Trier, Germany, capital of the Roman province of Gallia Belgica, constructed between 186 and 200 AD

The South gate of Hisarya’s Late Roman fortifications, the largest preserved in Bulgaria

 Ancient Roman defensive walls

The Romans generally fortified cities, rather than fortresses, but there are some fortified camps, such as the Saxon Shore forts like Porchester Castle in England. City walls were already significant in Etruscan architecture, and in the struggle for control of Italy under the early Republic many more were built, using different techniques. These included tightly-fitting massive irregular polygonal blocks, shaped to fit exactly in a way reminiscent of later Inca work. The Romans called a simple rampart wall an agger; at this date great height was not necessary. The Servian Wallaround Rome was an ambitious project of the early 4th century BC. The wall was up to 10 metres (32.8 ft) in height in places, 3.6 metres (12 ft) wide at its base, 11 km (7 mi) long,^[109] and is believed to have had 16 main gates, though many of these are mentioned only from writings, with no other known remains. Some of it had a fossa or ditch in front, and an agger behind, and it was enough to deter Hannibal. Later the Aurelian Wall replaced it, enclosing an expanded city, and using more sophisticated designs, with small forts at intervals.

The Romans walled major cities and towns in areas they saw as vulnerable, and parts of many walls remain incorporated in later defensive fortifications, as at Córdoba (2nd century BC), Chester(earth and wood in the 70s AD, stone from c. 100), and York (from 70s AD). Strategic walls across open country were far rarer, and Hadrian’s Wall (from 122) and the Antonine Wall (from 142, abandoned only 8 years after completion) are the most significant examples, both on the Pictish frontier of Roman Britain…

Architectural features

Mosaics

 Roman mosaic

On his return from campaigns in Greece, the general Sulla brought back what is probably the most well-known element of the early imperial period, the mosaic, a decoration made of colourful chips of stone inserted into cement. This tiling method took the empire by storm in the late first century and the second century and in the Roman home joined the well known mural in decorating floors, walls, and grottoes with geometric and pictorial designs.

Interior view with mosaics of Villa Armira in Bulgaria

There were two main techniques in Greco-Roman mosaic: opus vermiculatumused tiny tesserae, typically cubes of 4 millimeters or less, and was produced in workshops in relatively small panels which were transported to the site glued to some temporary support. The tiny tesserae allowed very fine detail, and an approach to the illusionism of painting. Often small panels called emblemata were inserted into walls or as the highlights of larger floor-mosaics in coarser work. The normal technique, however, was opus tessellatum, using larger tesserae, which were laid on site.^[110] There was a distinct native Italian style using black on a white background, which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work.^[111]

A specific genre of Roman mosaic obtained the name asaroton (Greek « unswept floor »). It represented an optical illusion of the leftovers from a feast on the floor of rich houses.^[112]

Hypocaust

Part-excavated hypocaust under the floor in a Roman villa in Vieux-la-Romaine, near Caen, France

A hypocaust was an ancient Roman system of underfloor heating, used to heat houses with hot air. The Roman architect Vitruvius, writing about the end of the 1st century B.C., attributes their invention to Sergius Orata. Many remains of Roman hypocausts have survived throughout Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. The hypocaust was an invention which improved the hygiene and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of modern central heating.

Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths (thermae), houses and other buildings, whether public or private. The floor was raised above the ground by pillars, called pilae stacks, with a layer of tiles, then a layer of concrete, then another of tiles on top; and spaces were left inside the walls so that hot air and smoke from the furnace would pass through these enclosed areas and out of flues in the roof, thereby heating but not polluting the interior of the room.

Roman roofs

Further information: List of ancient Greek and Roman roofs

In Sicily truss roofs presumably appeared as early as 550 BC.^[113]Their potential was fully realized in the Roman period, which saw trussed roofs over 30 wide spanning the rectangular spaces of monumental public buildings such as temples, basilicas, and later churches. Such spans were three times as wide as the widest prop-and-lintel roofs and only surpassed by the largest Roman domes.^[114]

The largest truss roof by span of ancient Rome covered the Aula Regia (throne room) built for emperor Domitian (81–96 AD) on the Palatine Hill, Rome. The timber truss roof had a width of 31.67 m, slightly surpassing the postulated limit of 30 m for Roman roof constructions. Tie-beam trusses allowed for much larger spans than the older prop-and-lintel system and even concrete vaulting. Nine out of the ten largest rectangular spaces in Roman architecture were bridged this way, the only exception being the groin vaulted Basilica of Maxentius.^[114]

Spiral stairs

 List of ancient spiral stairs

The spiral stair is a type of stairway which, due to its complex helicalstructure, was introduced relatively late into architecture. Although the oldest example dates back to the 5th century BC,^[115] it was only in the wake of the influential design of Trajan’s Column that this space-saving new type permanently caught hold in Roman architecture.^[116]

Apart from the triumphal columns in the imperial cities of Rome and Constantinople, other types of buildings such as temples, thermae, basilicas and tombs were also fitted with spiral stairways.^[116] Their notable absence in the towers of the Aurelian Wall indicates that although used in medieval castles, they did not yet figure prominently in Roman military engineering.^[116] By late antiquity, separate stair towers were constructed adjacent to the main buildings, as in the Basilica of San Vitale.

The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to Christian and Islamic architecture.

Significant buildings and areas

Hadrian’s Wall, built in 122 AD in Roman Britain, in what is now Northern England

Public buildings

• Baths of Trajan – these were a massive thermae, a bathing and leisure complex, built in ancient Rome starting from 104 AD and dedicated during the Kalends of July in 109.
• Baths of Diocletian – in ancient Rome, these were the grandest of the public baths (thermae), built by successive emperors
• Baths of Caracalla
• Colosseum
• Trajan’s Column, in Rome
• Circus Maximus, in Rome
• Curia Hostilia (Senate House), in Rome
• Domus Aurea (former building)
• Pantheon
• Tower of Hercules
• Tropaeum Traiani
• Hadrian’s Villa
• Verona Arena, in Verona
• Serdica and the Church of St. George, Sofia
• Philippopolis and the Roman theatre, Plovdiv
• Baths of Odessos, Varna

Private architecture

• Alyscamps – a necropolis in Arles, France, one of the most famous necropolises of the ancient world
• Domus
• Catacombs of Rome
• Roman villa
• Pompeii and Herculaneum

Civil engineering

• Roman engineering – Romans are famous for their advanced engineering accomplishments, although some of their own inventions were improvements on older ideas, concepts and inventions.
• Roman watermill

Military engineering

• Antonine Wall, in Scotland
• Hadrian’s Wall
• Limes Germanicus

• Outline of ancient Rome
• Outline of architecture
• Architecture of Mesopotamia
• Persian architecture

• Ancient Rome portal
• Italy portal
• History portal
• Architecture portal

Footnotes

1. ^ Henig, 26
2. ^ Henig, 27
3. ^ « BUILDING BIG: Pantheon ». PBS. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
4. ^ « The Roman Pantheon: The Triumph of Concrete ». Roman Concrete. Retrieved 16 September 2014.
5. ^ DeLaine 1990, p. 407.
6. ^ Rook 1992, pp. 18f..
7. ^ Gardner 2005, p. 170.
8. ^ Ward-Perkins 1956.
9. ^ Jump up to:^a b Rasch 1985, p. 117.
10. ^ Lechtman & Hobbs 1986.
11. ^ Mark & Hutchinson 1986, p. 24.
12. ^ Heinle & Schlaich 1996, p. 27.
13. ^ Henig, 28
14. ^ Henig, 32
15. ^ Favro, (ii) Materials and construction techniques
16. ^ Henig, 22; Favro, (ii) Materials and construction techniques, which lists major quarries
17. ^ Juracek 1996, p. 310.
18. ^ Peet 1911, p. 35–36.
19. ^ Jump up to:^a b Walters & Birch 1905, p. 330–40.
20. ^ Morris 1972, pp. 39-41, 51-60.
21. ^ Kolb 1984, pp. 169-238.
22. ^ Benevolo 1993, pp. 256-267.
23. ^ Harris 1989, pp. 375–392: « The Etruscans were, in their turn, probably also influenced in this respect by Greek and Hellenic culture. »
24. ^ Vitrivius 1914.
25. ^ Demandt 1998: « In fact, many sites where the Romans created towns, such as Paris, Vienna and Bratislava, had previously been Celtic settlements of more or less urban character. »
26. ^ Henig, 26. Blagg also mentions baths, granaries, insulae and large villas.
27. ^ Bomgardner 2000, p. 37.
28. ^ Bomgardner 2000, p. 59.
29. ^ Bomgardner 2000, p. 62.
30. ^ Bomgardner 2000, p. 201–223.
31. ^ Abbott & Johnson 1926, p. 12.
32. ^ « A Page from Latin Notes Supplement XV, Entitled SOME STORIES ABOUT THE ROMAN FORUM ». Latin Notes. 3 (6). 1926. JSTOR 43943460.
33. ^ Jump up to:^a b Dennison, Walter (June 1908). « The Roman Forum as Cicero Saw It ». The Classical Journal. 3 (8): 318–326. JSTOR 3287491.
34. ^ Richardson 1992, p. 193.
35. ^ Lampe 2006, p. 61.
36. ^ Potter & Mattingly 1999, p. 180.
37. ^ Patrich 1996, p. 149.
38. ^ Métreaux 1998, p. 14-15.
39. ^ Pliny, Epist. VIII.18
40. ^ Seneca, Epist. 45
41. ^ Schmitz 1875, p. 618.
42. ^ Kaufman, David (2 December 1929). « Horrea Romana: Roman Storehouses ». The John’s Hopkin’s University Press. 7 (7): 49–54. doi:10.2307/4389377. JSTOR 4389377.
43. ^ Jump up to:^a b Kaufman, David (2 December 1929). « Horrea Romana: Roman Storehouses ». The John’s Hopkin’s University Press. no. 7 (7): 49. doi:10.2307/4389377. JSTOR 4389377.
44. ^ EERA, 134
45. ^ Hermansen 1970.
46. ^ Storey 2002.
47. ^ Storey 2004.
48. ^ Wheeler, 89
49. ^ Fowler, W. Warde (1899). Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press. pp. 202–204.
50. ^ Summerson, 8-13
51. ^ Wilson Jones 2000.
52. ^ Ros 1996.
53. ^ Ward-Perkins 2000, p. 333.
54. ^ La Villa Romana dell’Auditorium
55. ^ Wikander 2000a, pp. 396f..
56. ^ Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 11.
57. ^ Wilson 2002, pp. 7f..
58. ^ Wikander 2000a, pp. 373–378.
59. ^ Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, pp. 12–15.
60. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 158.
61. ^ Wikander 2000b, p. 403.
62. ^ Wilson 2002, p. 16.
63. ^ Wikander 2000b, p. 407.
64. ^ Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007.
65. ^ Wikander 2000b, pp. 406f..
66. ^ Michael D. Gunther. « Glossary and Index of (mostly) Asian Art ». Old Stones: The Monuments of Art History. Archived from the original on 5 April 2007. Retrieved 24 September2014.^{[self-published source]}
67. ^ Wirsching 2000.
68. ^ Coulton 1974, pp. 7, 16.
69. ^ Lancaster 1999, pp. 419–439.
70. ^ Baker & Baker 2001, p. 69.
71. ^ « Museo del Sannio ». Retrieved 4 October 2014.
72. ^ « Three Obelisks in Benevento ». Retrieved 4 October 2014.
73. ^ Semple 1929, pp. 435.
74. ^ Semple 1929, pp. 436.
75. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Zaho 2004, p. 18–25.
76. ^ Sullivan 2006, p. 133–134.
77. ^ Jump up to:^a b Fürst & Grundmann 1998, p. 43.
78. ^ Jump up to:^a b Triumphal Arch at Encyclopædia Britannica
79. ^ Jump up to:^a b c F. B. Sear and Richard John. « Triumphal arch. » Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. 30 Jul. 2010
80. ^ Jump up to:^a b Honour & Fleming 2005.
81. ^ Forbes 1993, p. 146.
82. ^ Kaszynski 2000, p. 9.
83. ^ Bunson 2009, p. 195.
84. ^ O’Flaherty 2002, p. 2.
85. ^ Gagarin & Fantham 2010, p. 145.
86. ^ O’Connor 1993, p. 1.
87. ^ Beall, Christine (1988). « Designing the segmental arch » (PDF). ebuild.com. Retrieved 8 May 2010.^{[permanent dead link]}
88. ^ O’Connor 1993, p. 126.
89. ^ Döring 2002, pp. 310–319.
90. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Hodge 1992, p. 87.
91. ^ Schnitter 1978, p. 28, fig. 7.
92. ^ Hodge 1992, p. 80.
93. ^ Jump up to:^a b Hodge 2000, p. 332.
94. ^ Smith 1970, pp. 60f..
95. ^ Hodge 2000, pp. 331f..
96. ^ Hodge 1992, pp. 86f..
97. ^ Smith 1971, p. 49.
98. ^ Smith 1971, p. 42.
99. ^ Jump up to:^a b James & Chanson 2002.
100. ^ Smith 1971, pp. 33–35.
101. ^ Schnitter 1978, pp. 31f..
102. ^ Schnitter 1987a, p. 12.
103. ^ Schnitter 1987c, p. 80.
104. ^ Hodge 2000, p. 332, fn. 2.
105. ^ Schnitter 1987b, pp. 59–62.
106. ^ Schnitter 1978, p. 29.
107. ^ Schnitter 1987b, pp. 60, table 1, 62.
108. ^ Arenillas & Castillo 2003.
109. ^ Fields, Nic; Peter Dennis The Walls of Rome Osprey Publishing; 10 Mar 2008 ISBN 978-1-84603-198-4 p.10 [1]
110. ^ Smith 1983, pp. 116–119.
111. ^ Smith 1983, pp. 121–123.
112. ^ Miller 1972.
113. ^ Hodge 1960, p. 38–44.
114. ^ Jump up to:^a b Ulrich 2007, pp. 148f.
115. ^ Beckmann 2002.
116. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Beckmann 2002, p. 353–356.

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Further reading

• Adam, Jean Pierre. Roman Building: Materials and Techniques. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994.
• Anderson, James C. Roman Architecture and Society. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
• Boëthius, Axel. Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994.
• Fant, J. Clayton. « Quarrying and Stoneworking. » In The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, edited by John P. Oleson, 121–135. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
• Hopkins, John North. The Genesis of Roman Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016.
• Lancaster, Lynne C. Concrete Vaulted Construction In Imperial Rome: Innovations In Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
• –. « Roman Engineering and Construction. » In The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, edited by John P. Oleson, 256–284. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008.
• MacDonald, William Lloyd. The Architecture of the Roman Empire. Rev. ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982.
• Macready, Sarah, and F. H. Thompson. Roman architecture in the Greek world. London: Society of Antiquaries, 1987.
• Sear, Frank. Roman Architecture. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983.
• Thomas, Edmund V. Monumentality and the Roman Empire: Architecture in the Antonine age. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
• Ulrich, Roger B. Roman Woodworking. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007.
• Ulrich, Roger B., and Caroline K Quenemoen. A Companion to Roman Architecture. Somerset: Wiley, 2013.

Library resources about Ancient Roman architecture

Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries

• Traianus – Technical investigation of Roman public works
• Housing and apartments in Rome – A look at various aspects of housing in ancient Rome, apartments and villas.
• Rome Reborn − A Video Tour through Ancient Rome based on a digital model

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Cleopatra

Giacobbe Giusti, Cleopatra

 

Marmorbüste Kleopatra VII. von Ägypten, entstanden 40-30 v.Chr./ Marblebust of Cleopatra VII of Egypt form 40-30 BC

Giacobbe Giusti, Cleopatra

Kleopatra VII. Altes Museum Berlin

Giacobbe Giusti, Cleopatra

Testa di Tolomeo XII Aulete, padre di Cleopatra (Museo del Louvre, Parigi)

Cleopatra VII Philopator Giacobbe Giusti, Cleopatra
Bust believed to be of Cleopatra VII, Altes Museum, Berlin
Queen of Ptolemaic Kingdom
Reign	51 – 12 August 30 BC (21 years)
Predecessor	Ptolemy XII Auletes
Successor	Ptolemy XV Caesarion
Co-rulers	Ptolemy XII Auletes Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion
Born	69 BC Alexandria, Ptolemaic Kingdom
Died	12 August 30 BC (aged 39) Alexandria, Egypt
Burial	Unknown (probably in Egypt)
Spouse	Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Ptolemy XIV Mark Antony
Issue	Caesarion, Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar Alexander Helios Cleopatra Selene, Queen of Mauretania Ptolemy XVI Philadelphus
Full name Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator
Dynasty	Ptolemaic
Father	Ptolemy XII Auletes
Mother	Cleopatra V of Egypt(presumably)

Cleopatra VII in hieroglyphs
Cleopatra Qlwpdrt
​ Horus name (1): Wer(et)-neb(et)-neferu-achet-seh Wr(.t)-nb(.t)-nfrw-3ḫ(t)-sḥ The great Lady of perfection, excellent in counsel
​ Horus name (2): Weret-tut-en-it-es Wr.t-twt-n-jt=s The great one, sacred image of her father
Cleopatra netjeret mer(et) ites Qlwpdrt nṯrt mr(t) jts The goddess Cleopatra who is beloved of her father

Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic
Mark Antony Cleopatra VII Assassination of Julius Caesar Pompey Theatre of Pompey Cicero First Triumvirate Roman Forum Comitium Rostra Curia Julia Curia Hostilia
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Cleopatra VII Philopator (Greek: Κλεοπάτρα ΦιλοπάτωρCleopatra Philopator; 69^[1] – August 12, 30 BC^[2]), known to history as Cleopatra, was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, briefly survived as pharaoh by her son Caesarion. After her reign, Egypt became a province of the recently established Roman Empire.

Cleopatra was a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, a Greek family of Macedonian origin^[3]that ruled Egypt after Alexander the Great‘s death during the Hellenistic period. The Ptolemies spoke Greek^[4] throughout their dynasty, and refused to speak Late Egyptian, which is the reason that Greek as well as Egyptian were used on official court documents such as the Rosetta Stone.^[5] By contrast, Cleopatra did learn to speak Egyptian^[6]and represented herself as the reincarnation of the Egyptian goddessIsis.

Cleopatra originally ruled jointly with her father Ptolemy XII Auletes, and later with her brothers Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and Ptolemy XIV, whom she married as per Egyptian custom, but eventually she became sole ruler. As queen, she consummated a liaison with Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne. She later elevated Caesarion, her son with Caesar, to co-ruler in name.

After the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, she aligned with Mark Antony in opposition to Caesar’s legal heir, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (later known as Augustus). With Antony, she bore the twins Cleopatra Selene IIand Alexander Helios, and son Ptolemy Philadelphus (her unions with her brothers had produced no children). Antony committed suicide after losing the Battle of Actium to Octavian’s forces, and Cleopatra followed suit. According to a popular belief, she killed herself by means of an asp bite on August 12, 30 BC.^[7] She was outlived by Caesarion, who was declared pharaoh by his supporters, but he was soon killed on Octavian’s orders. Egypt then became the Roman province of Aegyptus.

Her legacy survives in numerous works of art and many dramatizations of incidents from her life in literature and other media, such as William Shakespeare‘s tragedy Antony and Cleopatra; George Frideric Handel‘s opera Giulio Cesare; George Bernard Shaw‘s play Caesar and Cleopatra; Jules Massenet‘s opera Cléopâtre; and the films Cleopatra (1934) and Cleopatra (1963).

Etymology of the name

Giacobbe Giusti, Cleopatra

Limestone stela of a high priest of god Ptah. It bears the cartouches of Cleopatra and Caesarion. From Egypt. Ptolemaic Period. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London

The name Cleopatra is derived from the Greekname Κλεοπάτρα (Kleopatra) which meant « she who comes from glorious father » or « glory of the father » in the feminine form, derived from κλέος (kleos) « glory » combined with πατήρ (pater) « father » (the masculine form would be written either as Kleopatros (Κλεόπατρος), or Patroklos (Πάτροκλος)).^[8][9]

Biography

Accession to the throne

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Ptolemaic Queen (Cleopatra VII?), 50-30 B.C., 71.12, Brooklyn Museum

The identity of Cleopatra’s mother is unknown, but she is generally believed to be Cleopatra V Tryphaena of Egypt, the sister or cousin and wife of Ptolemy XII Auletes, or possibly another Ptolemaic family member who was the daughter of Ptolemy X and Cleopatra Berenice III Philopator if Cleopatra V was not the daughter of Ptolemy X and Berenice III.^[10] Cleopatra’s father Auletes was a direct descendant of Alexander the Great‘s general Ptolemy I Soter, son of Arsinoe and Lagus, both of Macedonia.

Centralization of power and political corruption led to uprisings in and the losses of Cyprus and Cyrenaica, making Ptolemy XII Auletes’ reign one of the most calamitous of the dynasty. Ptolemy went to Rome with Cleopatra; Cleopatra VI Tryphaena seized the crown but died shortly afterwards in suspicious circumstances. It is believed (though not proven by historical sources) that Berenice IV poisoned her so that she could assume sole rulership. Regardless of the cause, she ruled until Ptolemy Auletes returned in 55 BC with Roman support, capturing Alexandria aided by the Roman general Aulus Gabinius. Berenice was imprisoned and executed shortly afterwards, her head allegedly being sent to the royal court on the decree of her father, the king. Cleopatra now became joint regent and deputy to her father at age 14, although her power would have been severely limited.

Ptolemy XII Auletes died in March 51 BC. His will made 18-year-old Cleopatra and her 10-year-old brother, Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator, joint monarchs. The first three years of their reign were difficult due to economic failures, famine, deficient floods of the Nile, and political conflicts. Cleopatra was married to her young brother, but she quickly made it clear that she had no intention of sharing power with him.

In August 51 BC, relations completely broke down between Cleopatra and Ptolemy. Cleopatra dropped Ptolemy’s name from official documents and her face alone appeared on coins, which went against Ptolemaic tradition of female rulers being subordinate to male co-rulers. In 50 BC, Cleopatra came into serious conflict with the Gabiniani, powerful Roman troops left behind by Aulus Gabinius to protect Ptolemy XII Auletes after his restoration to the throne in 55 BC. The Gabiniani killed the sons of the Roman governor of Syria, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, when they came to ask the Gabiniani to assist their father against the Parthians. Cleopatra handed the murderers over to Bibulus in chains, whereupon the Gabiniani became bitter enemies of the queen.^[11] This conflict was one of the main causes of Cleopatra’s fall from power shortly afterward. The sole reign of Cleopatra was finally ended by a cabal of courtiers led by the eunuchPothinus, in connection with half-Greek general Achillas, and Theodotus of Chios. Circa 48 BC, Cleopatra’s younger brother Ptolemy XIII became sole ruler.^[12]

Cleopatra tried to raise a rebellion around Pelusium, but was soon forced to flee with her only remaining sister, Arsinoe IV.^[13]

Relations with Rome

Assassination of Pompey

While Cleopatra was in exile, Pompey became embroiled in Caesar’s Civil War. Pompey fled to Alexandria from the forces of Caesar, seeking sanctuary after his defeat at the Battle of Pharsalus in late 48 BC. Ptolemy was thirteen years old at that time, and had set up a throne for himself on the harbor. From there, he watched as Pompey was murdered on September 28, 48 BC, by one of his former officers, now in Ptolemaic service. He was beheaded in front of his wife and children, who were on the ship from which he had just disembarked. Ptolemy is thought to have ordered the death to ingratiate himself with Caesar, thus becoming an ally of Rome, to which Egypt was in debt at the time. This act proved a miscalculation on Ptolemy’s part. Caesar arrived in Egypt two days later, and Ptolemy presented him with Pompey’s severed head. Caesar was enraged. Pompey was Caesar’s political enemy, but he was a Roman consul and the widower of Caesar’s only legitimate daughter, Julia, who died during childbirth. Caesar seized the Egyptian capital and imposed himself as arbiter between the rival claims of Ptolemy and Cleopatra.

Relationship with Julius Caesar

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Cleopatra and Caesar(1866). Painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme

Cleopatra was eager to take advantage of Julius Caesar‘s anger toward Ptolemy and had herself (at the approximate age of 21) secretly smuggled into Caesar’s palace to meet with him. Plutarch gives a vivid description in his Life of Julius Caesar^[14] of how she entered past Ptolemy’s guards rolled up in a carpet that Apollodorus the Sicilian was carrying.^[15] She became Caesar’s mistress and gave birth to their son Ptolemy Caesar in 47 BC, nine months after their first meeting. He was nicknamedCaesarion, which means « little Caesar. »

At this point, Caesar abandoned his plans to annex Egypt, instead backing Cleopatra’s claim to the throne. Mithridates raised the siege of Alexandria, and Caesar defeated Ptolemy’s army at the Battle of the Nile. Ptolemy XIII drowned in the Nile,^[16][17] and Caesar restored Cleopatra to her throne with younger brother Ptolemy XIV as her new co-ruler.^[18][19][20] When Caesar left Egypt, he left three legions there under the command of Rufio.^[21]

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Cleopatra VII and her son Caesarion at the Temple of Dendera

Caesar was thirty-one years older than Cleopatra when they met; they became lovers during Caesar’s stay in Egypt between 48 BC and 47 BC. Cleopatra claimed that Caesar was the father of her son and wished him to name the boy his heir; but Caesar refused, choosing his grandnephew Octavian instead. During this relationship, it was also rumored that Cleopatra introduced Caesar to her astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria, who proposed the idea of leap days and leap years. This was not new; they were proclaimed in 238 BC but the reform never took effect. Caesar made this the basis of his reform of the Roman calendar in 45 BC, and the Egyptian calendar was reformed along these lines in 26 BC.

Cleopatra, Ptolemy XIV, and Caesarion visited Rome in mid-46 BC. The Egyptian queen resided in one of Caesar’s country houses, which included the Horti Caesaris just outside Rome (as a foreign head of state, she was not allowed inside Rome’s pomerium).^[22][23] The relationship between Cleopatra and Caesar was obvious to the Roman people and caused a scandal because the dictator was already married to Calpurnia. But Caesar even erected a golden statue of Cleopatra represented as Isis in the temple of Venus Genetrix (the mythical ancestress of Caesar’s family), which was situated at the Forum Julium.^[24][25]Cicero said in his preserved letters that he hated the foreign queen.^[23] Cleopatra and her entourage were still in Rome when Caesar was assassinated on 15 March 44 BC,^[26] and after his death returned with her relatives to Egypt. When Ptolemy XIV died, allegedly poisoned by his older sister, Cleopatra made Caesarion her co-regent and successor and gave him the epithetsTheos Philopator Philometor(Father-loving and mother-loving God).^[27][28][29]

Cleopatra in the Roman Civil War

In light of her former relationship with Caesar, Cleopatra sided with his party, led by Mark Antonyand Octavian, in the civil war against the assassins of Caesar, led by Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Brutus and Cassius left Italy and sailed to the east of the Republic, where they conquered large areas and established military bases. At the beginning of 43 BC, Cleopatra formed an alliance with the leader of the Caesarian party in the east, Publius Cornelius Dolabella, who also recognized Caesarion as her co-ruler.^[30][31] However, by July, Dolabella was encircled in Laodicea and then committed suicide.

Cassius wanted to invade Egypt to seize its treasures and punish Cleopatra for her support for Dolabella. Egypt, famine-stricken, weak militarily on land, and in the throes of an epidemic, seemed an easy target. Cassius also wanted to prevent Cleopatra from bringing reinforcements for Antony and Octavian, but he was prevented from invading Egypt when Brutus summoned him back to Smyrna at the end of 43 BC. Cassius tried to blockade Cleopatra’s route to the Caesarians by positioning 60 ships and a legion of elite troops, commanded by Lucius Staius Murcus, at Cape Matapan in the south of the Peloponnese. Nevertheless, Cleopatra sailed with her fleet from Alexandria to the west along the Libyan coast to join the Caesarian leaders, but she was forced to return to Egypt because her ships were damaged by a violent storm and she became ill. Staius Murcus learned of the queen’s misfortune and saw wreckage from her ships on the coast of Greece. He then sailed with his ships into the Adriatic Sea.^[32]

Cleopatra and Mark Antony

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Antony and Cleopatra, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema

Denarius, 32 BC. Obverse: Diademed bust of Cleopatra, CLEOPATRA[E REGINAE REGVM]FILIORVM REGVM. Reverse: Bust of M. Antony, ANTONI ARMENIA DEVICTA

Mark Antonywas one of the triumvirswho ruled Rome in the power vacuum following Caesar’s death. He sent his intimate friend Quintus Dellius to Egypt in 41 BC, to summon Cleopatra to him in Cilician Tarsus, ostensibly in order to answer questions about her loyalty–during the Roman civil war, she allegedly had paid much money to Cassius. It seems that, in reality, Antony wanted Cleopatra’s promise to support his intended war against the Parthians. Cleopatra arrived in great state, and (at the approximate age of 28) so charmed Antony that he chose to spend late 41 BC to early 40 BC with her in Alexandria.^[33]

To safeguard herself and Caesarion, she had Antony order the death of her sister, Arsinoe IV, who had been banished to the Temple of Artemisin Roman-controlled Ephesus for her role in leading the Siege of Alexandria (47 BC). The execution was carried out in 41 BC on the steps of the temple, and this violation of temple sanctuary scandalised Rome.^[34] Cleopatra also retrieved her strategos (military governor) of Cyprus Serapion, who had supported Cassius against her wishes.^[35]

On 25 December 40 BC, Cleopatra gave birth to twins fathered by Antony, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene II. Four years later, Antony visited Alexandria again en route to make war with the Parthians. He renewed his relationship with Cleopatra and, from this point on, Alexandria was his home. He married Cleopatra according to the Egyptian rite (a letter quoted in Suetonius’ The Twelve Caesars suggests this), although he was married at the time to Octavia the Younger, sister of his fellow triumvir Octavian. He and Cleopatra had another child, Ptolemy Philadelphus.

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A tetradrachm of Cleopatra VII, Syria mint

Cleopatra and Caesarion were crowned co-rulers of Egypt and Cyprus at the Donations of Alexandria in late 34 BC, following Antony’s conquest of Armenia. Alexander Helios was crowned ruler of Armenia, Media, and Parthia; Cleopatra Selene II was crowned ruler of Cyrenaica and Libya; and Ptolemy Philadelphus was crowned ruler of Phoenicia, Syria, and Cilicia. Cleopatra was also given the title of « Queen of Kings » by Antonius.^[36]Her enemies in Rome feared that she « was planning a war of revenge that was to array all the East against Rome, establish herself as empress of the world at Rome, cast justice from Capitolium, and inaugurate a new universal kingdom. »^[37]Caesarion was showered with many additional titles, including god, son of god, and King of Kings, and was depicted as Horus.^[38] Egyptians thought that Cleopatra was a reincarnation of the goddess Isis, as she called herself Nea Isis.^[39]

Relations between Antony and Octavian had been disintegrating for several years; they finally broke down in 33 BC, and Octavian convinced the Senate to levy war against Egypt. In 31 BC, Antony’s forces faced the Romans in a naval action off the coast of Actium. Cleopatra was present with a fleet of her own. According to Plutarch, Cleopatra took flight with her ships at the height of the battle, and Antony followed her.^[40]Following the Battle of Actium, Octavian invaded Egypt. As he approached Alexandria, Antony’s armies deserted to Octavian on August 1, 30 BC. To finance her war against Octavian, Cleopatra took gold from the tomb of Alexander the Great, which had been previously robbed.^[41]

There are a number of unverifiable stories about Cleopatra. One of the best known is that she playfully bet Antony, at one of the lavish dinners which they shared, that she could spend ten million sestertii on a dinner. He accepted the bet. The next night, she had a conventional, unspectacular meal served; he was ridiculing this, when she ordered the second course — only a cup of strong vinegar. She then removed one of her priceless pearl earrings, dropped it into the vinegar, allowed it to dissolve, and drank the mixture. The earliest report of this story comes from Pliny the Elder and dates to about 100 years after the banquet described would have happened. The calcium carbonate in pearls does dissolve in vinegar, but slowly unless the pearl is first crushed.^[42]

Death

Death of Cleopatra

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The Death of Cleopatra by Guido Cagnacci, 1658

The ancient sources, particularly the Roman ones, are in general agreement that Cleopatra killed herself, at age 39, by inducing an asp (Egyptian cobra) to bite her. The oldest source is Strabo, who was alive at the time of the event and might even have been in Alexandria. He says that there are two stories — that she applied a toxic ointment or that she was bitten by an asp on her breast — but he said in his writings that he was not sure whether Cleopatra poisoned herself or was murdered.^[43] Several Roman poets writing within ten years of the event mention bites by two asps,^[44][45][46] as does Florus, a historian, some 150 years later.^[47]Velleius, sixty years after the event, also refers to an asp.^[48][49] Other authors have questioned these historical accounts, stating that it is possible that Augustus had her killed.^[50] In 2010, German historian Christoph Schaefer challenged all other theories, declaring that the queen had actually died from drinking a mixture of poisons. After studying historical texts and consulting with toxicologists, the historian concluded that the asp could not have caused the quick and pain-free death claimed by most sources, since the asp venom paralyses parts of the body, starting with the eyes, before causing death. Living when and where she did, Cleopatra would have known of the violent and painful effects of an asp’s venomous bite, so it is unlikely that it was the cause of her death. Also, the asp’s bite is not always fatal. Schaefer and his toxicologist Dietrich Mebs have theorized that Cleopatra used a mixture of hemlock, wolfsbane, and opium.^[51]

Giacobbe Giusti, Cleopatra

 

The Death of Cleopatra by Reginald Arthur, 1892

Plutarch, writing about 130 years after the event, reports that Octavian succeeded in capturing Cleopatra in her mausoleum after the death of Antony. He ordered his freedman Epaphroditus to guard her to prevent her from committing suicide, because he allegedly wanted to present her in his triumph. However, Cleopatra was able to deceive Epaphroditus and kill herself nevertheless.^[52]Plutarch states that she was found dead, her handmaiden Iras dying at her feet, and handmaiden Charmion adjusting her crown before she herself fell.^[53] He then goes on to state that an asp was concealed in a basket of figs that was brought to her by a rustic and, finding it after eating a few figs, she held out her arm for it to bite. Other stories state that it was hidden in a vase and that she poked it with a spindle until it got angry enough to bite her on the arm. Finally, he indicates that, in Octavian’s triumphal march back in Rome, an effigy of Cleopatra with an asp clinging to it was part of the parade.^[54]

Suetonius, writing about the same time as Plutarch, also says Cleopatra died from an asp bite.^[55]

Classical sources say that Cleopatra was bitten on the arm,^[56][57][58] but she is more usually depicted in medieval and Renaissance iconography with asps at her breast, a tradition followed by Shakespeare.^[59]

The Death of Cleopatra by Juan Luna, 1881.

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Cleopatra is depicted taking her own life with the bite of a venomous serpent. Adam Lenckhardt (Ivory).^[60]The Walters Art Museum.

Plutarch tells us of the death of Antony. When his armies deserted him and joined with Octavian, he cried out that Cleopatra had betrayed him. She locked herself in her monument with only her two handmaidens, fearing his wrath, and sent messengers to tell Antony that she was dead. Believing them, Antony stabbed himself in the stomach with his sword, and lay on his couch to die. Instead, the blood flow stopped, and he begged any and all to finish him off. Another messenger came from Cleopatra with instructions to bring him to her, and he consented, rejoicing that Cleopatra was still alive. She would not open the door, but tossed ropes out of a window. After Antony was securely trussed up, she and her handmaidens hauled him up into the monument. This nearly finished him off. After dragging him in through the window, they laid him on a couch. Cleopatra tore off her clothes and covered him with them. She raved and cried, beat her breasts, and engaged in self-mutilation. Antony told her to calm down, asked for a glass of wine, and died upon finishing it.^[61]

The site of their mausoleum is uncertain, though the Egyptian Antiquities Service believes that it is in or near the temple of Taposiris Magna, southwest of Alexandria.^[62]

Caesarion, Cleopatra’s son by Caesar, was proclaimed pharaoh by the Egyptians after Alexandria fell to Octavian. Caesarion was captured and killed, his fate reportedly sealed when one of Octavian’s advisers paraphrased Homer: « It is bad to have too many Caesars. »^[63]This ended the Hellenistic line of Egyptian pharaohs and, in fact, the line of all Egyptian pharaohs. The three children of Cleopatra and Antony were spared and taken back to Rome, where they were taken care of by Antony’s wife Octavia Minor. Octavian arranged the marriage of the daughter, Cleopatra Selene, to Juba II of Mauretania.^[64]

Character and cultural depictions

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Statue of Cleopatra as Egyptian goddess; Basalt, second half of the 1st century BC. Hermitage, Saint Petersburg

Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners by Alexandre Cabanel (1887).

Main article: Cultural depictions of Cleopatra

Cleopatra was regarded as a great beauty, even in the ancient world. In his Life of Antony, Plutarch remarks that « judging by the proofs which she had had before this of the effect of her beauty upon Caius Caesar and Gnaeus the son of Pompey, she had hopes that she would more easily bring Antony to her feet. For Caesar and Pompey had known her when she was still a girl and inexperienced in affairs, but she was going to visit Antony at the very time when women have the most brilliant beauty. »^[65] Later in the work, however, Plutarch indicates that « her beauty, as we are told, was in itself neither altogether incomparable, nor such as to strike those who saw her. »^[65] Rather, what ultimately made Cleopatra attractive were her wit, charm and « sweetness in the tones of her voice. »^[65]

Cassius Dio also spoke of Cleopatra’s allure: « For she was a woman of surpassing beauty, and at that time, when she was in the prime of her youth, she was most striking; she also possessed a most charming voice and knowledge of how to make herself agreeable to everyone. Being brilliant to look upon and to listen to, with the power to subjugate everyone, even a love-sated man already past his prime, she thought that it would be in keeping with her role to meet Caesar, and she reposed in her beauty all her claims to the throne. »^[65]

These accounts influenced later cultural depictions of Cleopatra, which typically present her using her charms to influence the most powerful men in the Western world.

Cleopatra was also renowned for her intellect. Plutarch writes that she could speak at least nine languages and rarely had need of an interpreter.^[66]

Ancestry

The high degree of inbreeding amongst the Ptolemies is also illustrated by Cleopatra’s immediate ancestry, of which a reconstruction is shown below.^[67] Through three uncle–niece marriages and three sister–brother marriages, her family tree collapses to a single couple at four, five or six generations back (counting through different lines).^[68]

It has often been said that « there was not one drop of Egyptian blood in the Ptolemaic line »,^[69]and that the Romans, in all their anti-Cleopatra propaganda, made no mention of any illegitimacy against her.

[hide]Ancestors of Cleopatra VII of Egypt

16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes 8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 17. Cleopatra I of Egypt 4. Ptolemy IX Lathyros 18. Ptolemy VI Philometor (brother of no. 8) 9. Cleopatra III of Egypt 19. Cleopatra II of Egypt (sister of no. 8) 2. Ptolemy XII Auletes 20. Ptolemy V Epiphanes (= 16) 10. Ptolemy VIII Physcon (= 8) 21. Cleopatra I of Egypt (= 17) 5. Cleopatra IV of Egypt 22. Ptolemy VI Philometor (= 18) 11. Cleopatra III of Egypt (= 9) 23. Cleopatra II of Egypt (= 19) 1. Cleopatra VII 24. Ptolemy V Epiphanes (= 16) 12. Ptolemy VIII Physcon (= 8) 25. Cleopatra I of Egypt (= 17) 6. Ptolemy X Alexander I 26. Ptolemy VI Philometor (= 18) 13. Cleopatra III of Egypt (= 9) 27. Cleopatra II of Egypt (= 19) 3. Cleopatra V Tryphaena 28. Ptolemy VIII Physcon (= 8) 14. Ptolemy IX Lathyros (= 4) 29. Cleopatra III of Egypt (= 9) 7. Berenice III 30. Ptolemy VIII Physcon (= 8) 15. Cleopatra Selene of Syria 31. Cleopatra III of Egypt (= 9)

Several persons appear multiple times in Cleopatra’s ancestry. For instance, her mother was her father’s niece and thus not only her mother but also her cousin. This family tree attempts to present those relationships in a more easily-understood format.

Ptolemy V Epiphanes

Cleopatra I

Ptolemy VI Philometor

Cleopatra II

Ptolemy VIII Physcon

Cleopatra III

Cleopatra Selene of Syria

Ptolemy IX Lathyros

Cleopatra IV

Ptolemy X Alexander I

Berenice III

Cleopatra V

Ptolemy XII Auletes

Cleopatra VII

• List of female rulers and title holders
• Zenobia

Notes

1. Jump up^ Walker, p. 129.
2. Jump up^ T.C. Skeat, « The Last Days of Cleopatra: A Chronological Problem », The Journal of Roman Studies, 43 (1953), pp. 98–100 [1].
3. Jump up^ *Western civilisation:ideas, Politics, and society by Marvin Perry, Margaret C Jacob, Myrna Chase, James R Jacob page 132: ”Cleopatra (69- 30 BC), the Greek queen of Egypt, belonged to the Ptolemaic family, the Macedonian Greeks who ruled Egypt during the Hellenistic Age”. *The Civilization of Rome by Donald R. Dudley, Page 57: ”In Egypt the Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies was the successor to the native Pharaohs, exploiting through a highly organized bureaucracy the great natural resources of the Nile Valley”. *The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Cleopatra VII was born to Ptolemy XII Auletes (80–57 BC, ruled 55–51 BC) and Cleopatra, both parents being Macedonian Greeks. » *Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt by Kathryn Bard, page 488 “Ptolemaic kings were still crowned at Memphis and the city was popularly regarded as the Egyptian rival to Alexandria, founded by the Macedonian Greeks”; Page 687: « During the Ptolemaic period, when Egypt was governed by rulers of Greek descent…” *Cleopatra: A Sourcebook (Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture) by Prudence J. Jones (Author) page14: “They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonian Greeks, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great.” *Women in Hellenistic Egypt by Sarah B. Pomeroy, page 16 “while Ptolemaic Egypt was a monarchy with a Greek ruling class. »
4. Jump up^ Cleopatra: the life of an Egyptian queen By Gary Jeffrey, Anita Ganeri page 6  :” Throughout their dynasty, the Ptolemies held onto their Greek culture and continued to speak Greek as their main language.”.
5. Jump up^ « Radio 4 Programmes – A History of the World in 100 Objects, Empire Builders (300 BC – 1 AD), Rosetta Stone ». BBC. Retrieved 2010-06-07.
6. Jump up^ Plutarch, Antony 27
7. Jump up^ « Who Was Cleopatra? (page 2) ». Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
8. Jump up^ « Cleopatra: Meaning & History ». Behind the Name.com. Retrieved 4 April 2014.
9. Jump up^ « Kleopatros: Meaning & History ». Behind the Name.com. Retrieved 4 April 2014.
10. Jump up^ Huss, Werner (1990). « Die Herkunft der Kleopatra Philopator ». Aegyptus. 70 (1/2): 191–203. doi:10.2307/41216791. assumes instead that Cleopatra’s mother was a high-born Egyptian woman who possibly had become the second wife of Ptolemy XII after he had repudiated Cleopatra V.
11. Jump up^ Valerius Maximus 4.1.15
12. Jump up^ Anderson, Jaynie (2003). Tiepolo’s Cleopatra. Macmillan Education AU. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-876832-44-5.
13. Jump up^ Peter Green (1990), Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 661–664, ISBN 0-520-05611-6
14. Jump up^ Parallel Lives – The Life of Julius Caesar, 49
15. Jump up^ So dramatic is the report of Plutarch (Caesar49.1–3) that it is doubted by some scholars.^[who?] Cleopatra had to be smuggled in secretly because Ptolemy XIII had blocked all entries to Alexandria, making it impossible for his half-sister to come into the city.
16. Jump up^ De Bello Alexandrino28–32
17. Jump up^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.43
18. Jump up^ De Bello Alexandrino 33
19. Jump up^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.44
20. Jump up^ Suetonius, Caesar 35.1
21. Jump up^ Suetonius, Caesar 76.3
22. Jump up^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.27.3
23. ^ Jump up to:^a b Cicero, Letters to Atticus 15.15.2
24. Jump up^ Appian, Civil Wars 2.102.424
25. Jump up^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.22.3
26. Jump up^ Cicero (Letters to Atticus 14.8.1, written on 16 April 44 BC) says that he was very glad that the Queen fled.
27. Jump up^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 15.89
28. Jump up^ Porphyry, Fragmente der griechischen Historiker (FGrH) 260 F 2, 16-17
29. Jump up^ stele BM 377 (15 February 42 BC) and others
30. Jump up^ Appian, Civil Wars 4.61.262–263
31. Jump up^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 47.30.4 and 47.31.5
32. Jump up^ Appian, Civil Wars 4.63; 4.74; 4.82; 5.8
33. Jump up^ Plutarch, Life of Antony 25-29; Appian, Civil Wars 5.8-11; Cassius Dio, Roman History 48.24
34. Jump up^ BBC documentary, Cleopatra portrait of a killer
35. Jump up^ Appian, Civil Wars 5.9.35
36. Jump up^ Syme, p. 270.
37. Jump up^ Syme, p. 274.
38. Jump up^ Stanley Mayer Burstein (30 December 2007), The Reign of Cleopatra, University of Oklahoma Press, p. 20, ISBN 978-0-8061-3871-8, retrieved 31 March 2011
39. Jump up^ Plutarch, Life of Antony 54.9
40. Jump up^ ‘Actium’, The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, third edition, edited by M. C. Howatson. Oxford University, 2011.
41. Jump up^ « Alexander the Great, King of Macedon ». Archaeology. July 16, 2013. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
42. Jump up^ Ullman, Berthold L. (1957), « Cleopatra’s Pearls », The Classical Journal, 52 (5): 193–201.
43. Jump up^ Strabo, Geography, XVII 10
44. Jump up^ Note that an unnamed editor of the respected Loeb Classical Library translation stated that the « twin snakes » mentioned in the text are simply a « symbol of death. »Virgil, Aeneid, VIII 696–697
45. Jump up^ Horace, Odes, I 37
46. Jump up^ Sextus Propertius, Elegies, III 11
47. Jump up^ Florus, Epitome of Roman History, II 21
48. Jump up^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, II 87
49. Jump up^ For a possible poetic allusion to the asp, see Wallace Stevens’ In the Carolinas
50. Jump up^ Everitt, Anthony (2007), Augustus: The Life of Rome’s First Emperor, New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks, pp. 194–195, ISBN 0-8129-7058-6
51. Jump up^ Melissa Gray (2010-06-30). « Poison, not snake, killed Cleopatra, scholar says – Cleopatra died a quiet and pain free death, historian alleges ». CNN. Retrieved 2015-10-11.
52. Jump up^ Plutarch, Life of Antony 79.6 and 85.4–6; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.11.4–5 and 51.13.3–5
53. Jump up^ Plutarch, Parallel Lives, LXXXV 2–3 (Life of Antony)
54. Jump up^ Plutarch, ibid., LXXXVI 3. See also Cassius Dio, Roman History, LI 21
55. Jump up^ Suetonius, On the Life of the Caesars, Augustus, XVII 4
56. Jump up^ Plutarch, loc. cit.
57. Jump up^ Cassius Dio, op. cit., LI 14
58. Jump up^ Galen, De Theriaca ad Pisonem, CCXXXVII, who says she bit herself, rather than an asp biting her.
59. Jump up^ Shakespeare, Antony and Cleopatra, V ii
60. Jump up^ « Cleopatra ». The Walters Art Museum.
61. Jump up^ Plutarch, ibid.
62. Jump up^ « Dig ‘may reveal’ Cleopatra’s tomb ». BBC News. 2009-04-15. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
63. Jump up^ Plutarch, Life of Antony 81.4 – 82.1; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.15.5; Suetonius, Augustus 17.5
64. Jump up^ Plutarch, Life of Antony 87.1–2; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.15.6; Suetonius, Augustus17.5 and Caligula 26.1
65. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d « The Beauty of Cleopatra ». University of Chicago. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
66. Jump up^ « she could pass from one language to another; so that there were few of the barbarian nations that she answered by an interpreter; to most of them she spoke herself, as to the Ethiopians, Troglodytes, Hebrews, Arabians, Syrians, Medes, Parthians, and many others, whose language she had learnt; which was all the more surprising because most of the kings, her predecessors, scarcely gave themselves the trouble to acquire the Egyptian tongue, and several of them quite abandoned the Macedonian. » Plutarch, Antony, 27.3-4
67. Jump up^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3The family tree and short discussions of the individuals can be found on pages 268-281. The authors refer to Cleopatra V as Cleopatra VI and Cleopatra Selene of Syria is called Cleopatra V Selene.
68. Jump up^ Stacy Schiff, Cleopatra: A Life, Hachette Digital, Inc., 2010, ISBN 978-0-316-00192-2Google Books
69. Jump up^ HSC Ancient History, By Peter Roberts, pg 125, at https://books.google.co.za/books?id=Krh7n9AyS40C&pg=PA129&dq=arsinoe+iv&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjYz-KfxrzOAhXEAsAKHbaGD2MQ6AEILDAD#v=onepage&q=arsinoe%20iv&f=false

Library resources about Cleopatra

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References

Primary sources

• Hegesippus, Historiae i.29–32.
• Lucan, Bellum civile ix.909–911, x.
• Macrobius, Saturnalia iii.17.14–18.
• Orosius, Historiae adversus paganos vi.16.1–2, 19.4–18.
• Pliny, Naturalis historia vii.2.14, ix.58.119–121, xxi.9.12.
• Plutarch (1958), « Caesar », in Warner, Rex, Fall of the Roman Republic, London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-044084-4
• Plutarch (1965), « Mark Antony », in Scott-Kilvert, Ian, Makers of Rome, Baltimore: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-044158-1
• Suetonius, De vita CaesarumIul i.35.52, ii.17.

Modern sources

• Bradford, Ernle Dusgate Selby (2000), Cleopatra, Penguin Group, ISBN 978-0-14-139014-7
• Burstein, Stanley M. (2004), The reign of Cleopatra, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-32527-8
• Flamarion, Edith; Bonfante-Warren, Alexandra (1997), Cleopatra: The Life and Death of a Pharaoh, Harry Abrams, ISBN 978-0-8109-2805-3
• Foss, Michael (1999), The Search for Cleopatra, Arcade Publishing, ISBN 978-1-55970-503-5
• Fraser, P.M. (1972), Ptolemaic Alexandria, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-814278-1
• Lindsay, Jack (1972), Cleopatra, New York: Coward-McCann
• Nardo, Don (1994), Cleopatra, Lucent Books, ISBN 978-1-56006-023-9
• Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1984), Women in Hellenistic Egypt: from Alexander to Cleopatra, New York: Schocken Books, ISBN 0-8052-3911-1
• Roller, Duane W. (2010), Cleopatra: a biography, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-536553-5
• Southern, Pat (2000), Cleopatra, Tempus, ISBN 978-0-7524-1494-2
• Syme, Ronald (1962), The Roman Revolution, Oxford University Press
• Volkmann, H. (1958), Cleopatra: A Study in Politics and Propaganda, T.J. Cadoux, trans, New York: Sagamore Press
• Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (2001), Cleopatra of Egypt, From History to Myth, British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0-7141-1943-4
• Weigall, Arthur (1923), The Life and Times of Cleopatra Queen of Egypt, London: Putnam

Egyptian archaeologist finds artifacts which may lead to Cleopatra’s tomb

• Cleopatra on In Our Time at the BBC.
• Vanessa Collingridge (2014). « Cleopatra: A Timewatch Guide ». Retrieved 5 July 2016.
• Cleopatra, a Victorian children’s book by Jacob Abbott, 1852, Project Gutenberg edition
• « Mysterious Death of Cleopatra » at the Discovery Channel
• Cleopatra VII at BBC History

Cleopatra Ptolemaic dynasty Born: 69 BC Died: 30 BC
Regnal titles
Preceded by Ptolemy XII	Queen of Egypt 51–30 BC with Ptolemy XII, Ptolemy XIII, Ptolemy XIVand Ptolemy XV Caesarion	Egypt annexed by Roman

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com