Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

Etruscan dancer, Tomb of the Leopards, Tarquinia, Italy

Main article: Etruscan civilization

Etruscan society is mainly known through the memorial and achievemental inscriptions on monuments of Etruscan civilization, especially tombs. This information emphasizes family data. Some contractual information is also available from various sources.^[1] The Roman and Greek historians had more to say of Etruscan government.^[1]

Aristocratic families

Society of the tombs

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

Etruscan Civilization dancer in the Tomb of the Augurs, Tarquinia, Italy

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

Etruscan dancers in the Tomb of the Triclinium near Tarquinia, Italy (470 BC)

The population described by the inscriptions owned the tombs in which their relatives interred them and were interred in turn. These were the work of craftsmen who must have gone to considerable expense, for which they must have been paid. The interment chambers also were stocked with furniture, luxury items and jewelry, which are unlikely to have been available to the ordinary citizen. The sarcophagi were ornate, each one a work of art. The society of the tombs therefore was that of the aristocrats. While alive they occupied magistracies recorded in the inscriptions. Their magisterial functions are obscure now, but they were chief men in society.

The Etruscans did not always own sufficient wealth to support necropolises for their chief men and stock them with expensive items to be smashed and thrown away. People of the Villanovan culture lived in poor huts concomitant with subsistence agriculture and owned plain and simple implements. Their simple ware is known as bucchero, plain black undecorated pots. In the 8th century BC, the orientalizing period began, a time of influx of luxuriously living Greeks. They brought their elegant pottery styles and architectural methods with them.

Yet the rise of Etruscan civilization cannot entirely be explained by immigrants from Greece. The Etruscans became a maritime power. By the 7th century they had imported methods and materials from the eastern Mediterranean and were leaving written inscriptions. Groups of Villanovan villages were now consolidated into Etruscan cities. Elaborate tomb cities began to appear.^[2]

Rise of the family

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

Etruscan couple (Louvre, Room 18)

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

Etruscan mother and child, 500–450 BC

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

The Mars of Todi, a life-sized bronze sculpture of a soldier making a votive offering, late 5th to early 4th century BC

The princely tombs were not of individuals. The inscriptional evidence shows that families were interred there over long periods, marking the growth of the aristocratic family as a fixed institution, parallel to the gensat Rome and perhaps even its model. It is not an Etruscan original, as there is no sign of it in the Villanovan. The Etruscans could have used any model of the eastern Mediterranean. That the growth of this class is related to the new acquisition of wealth through trade is unquestioned. The wealthiest cities were located near the coast.

The Etruscan name of the family was lautn.^[1] At the center of the lautn was the married couple, tusurthir. The Etruscans were a monogamous society that emphasized pairing. The lids of large numbers of sarcophagi (for example, the « Sarcophagus of the Spouses« ) are adorned with sculpted couples, smiling, in the prime of life (even if the remains were of persons advanced in age), reclining next to each other or with arms around each other. The bond was obviously a close one by social preference

It is possible that Greek and Roman attitudes to the Etruscans were based on a misunderstanding of the place of women within their society. In both Greece and Republican Rome, respectable women were mostly confined to the house and mixed-sex socialising did not occur. Thus the freedom of women within Etruscan society could have been misunderstood as implying their sexual availability.

It is worth noting that a number of Etruscan tombs carry funerary inscriptions in the form ‘X son of [father] and [mother]’, indicating the importance of the mother’s side of the family.

Development of names

Etruscan naming conventions are complex and appear to reveal different stages in the development of names.^[3] The stages apply only to aristocratic names, attested in the inscriptions. Whether the ordinary people followed suit or were perhaps in the earliest stage remains unknown.

Praenomen

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

Painted terracotta Sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa, about 150–130 BCE

Everyone at all times had a praenomen, or first name, which was a simple descendant of an ancient name, or a compound comprising a meaningful expression.^[4]They were marked for gender: aule/aulia, larth/lartha, arnth/arntia. There is no evidence that girls were named for males, as in Roman society; that is, a girl did not take her father’s or husband’s name. Some names were entirely female.

Patronymic and matronymic

As in Proto-Indo-European, individual males were further distinguished by a patronymic, which could be formed in a few different ways:

• the genitive case: larth arnthal, « Larth son of Arnth. »
• the genitive case with clan, « son »: larth clan arnthal.
• the nominative case formed from the genitive with a patronymic suffix: -isa, -sa, -sla, which the Bonfantes regard as a suffixed demonstrative pronoun: arnth larthal-isa.

Females were further identified with either the husband’s name (gamonymic) or the son’s name in patronymic construction. Unlike the Indo-Europeans, the girls had a matronymic, same construction. Sometimes males are identified with a matronymic, thus leaving some doubt as to whether early Etruscan society was patrilinear. The men were perhaps dominant (patriarchy); there was a word for « wife », puia, which ties a woman to her husband conceptually, but none for husband. These names and conventions must have prevailed in the Villanovan culture.

Nomen gentile

The nomen gentile, or family name, dates to the orientalizing period. Recorded names are minimally binomial: Vethur Hathisna, Avile Repesuna, Fasti Aneina. Patronyms and other further specifications are added after it: Arnth Velimna Aules, « Arnth Velimna son of Aule. » In those contexts double patronymics can be used, naming the father and grandfather: Arnth Velimna Aules clan Larthalisla, « Arnth Velimna son of Aule son of Larth. »

The nomen gentile was formed in a number of ways, most often with a -na suffix, -nas in south Etruscan (possibly the genitive case). The suffixed nomen might refer to an individual of the family: Arnth/Arnth-na, spure/spuri-na; or it might be a mythological figure: usil/usel-na; or a geographic location: Velch/Vels-na.

The nomen gentile was an adjective and could be used alone as a noun, the name in this case, as though it were a praenomen. In that case male and female forms appear, perhaps the closest linguistic feature to agreement of gender: a male would be in the vipina family, named after a previous individual, Vipi, but a female in the Vipinei, or a male in the Velthina, named after Vel, and a female in the Veliana. The male and female names refer to the same family.^[5]

Probably in deference to Italic, the nomen gentile could also be formed with -ie for males or -i and -a for females, perhaps from Italic -ios or its later form -ius, which can be made feminine: -ia.^[6] Typically of Etruscan^[1] both suffices can be used together: -na-ie.^[7]

The serious study of nomina gentilia is just beginning, due to the accumulation of sufficient names on which to base hypotheses. A family might be concentrated at one location or appear in a number of cities, and be spelled in as many as a dozen different ways. The Romans themselves identified a good many gentes at Rome that were originally Etruscan and since then scholars have spotted more. It is not unlikely that much of the patrician class, which was most powerful under the Etruscan kings, was or was derived from an Etruscan model, which dated to no earlier than the 8th century BC.

Kinship

Kinship is defined with relation to the ego, or « I ». I then may state whatever « I » am or you are to me. Females could state that they were the daughter of a father, sec or sech, and the wife of a husband, puia. Conversely, a man was never described as a husband of a woman. Etruscan society therefore was patrilineal and probably egalitarian.

Kinship among the Etruscans was vertical, or generational. They kept track of six generations. In addition to the mi (“I”) an individual recognized a clan (“son”) or a sec (“daughter”), a neftś (“grandson”), and a prumaths (“great-grandson”). Every self had an apa and ati(“father” and “mother”) and relatives older than they.

A division of relatives as maternal or paternal seems to have existed: the apa nachna and the ati nachna, the grandfather’s and grandmother’s relatives. On the level of the self, the lack of any words for aunt, uncle or cousins is notable. Very likely, apa was a generational word: it meant father or any of father’s male relatives. Similarly, ati would have meant any female relative of mother’s age or generation. Ruva (“brother”) is recognized, but no sister. It is possible, though hard to determine, that ruva had a broader meaning of « any related male of the self’s generation ».

This horizontal telescoping of relatives applies indirectly to the self as well. The telals are the grand offspring, either male or female, of the grandmother, and the papals of the grandfather. It is difficult to determine whether neftś means « grandson » or « nephew » although there could be cross-cultural contamination here with Latin nepōs (< IE *nepōts) which derives from a kinship system of the Omaha type. In the Omaha type, the same word is used for both nephew and grandson but this kinship type does not typically exhibit terminology used for « kin of a particular generation » as suspected in Etruscan kinship terms.

The Etruscans were careful also to distinguish status within the family. There was a stepdaughter and stepson, sech farthana and clan thuncultha (although this may in fact mean « first son » based on the root thun- « one »), as well as a stepmother, ativu (literally « little mother »), an adopted son, clanti, and the universal mother-in-law, netei. Other terms were not as high or democratic in status. The system was like that of the Roman. The etera were slaves, or more precisely, foreign slaves. When they had been freed they were lautni(male) or lautnitha (female), freed men or women, who were closely connected to the family and were clients of it in return for service and respect.

Of the several formal kinship classifications, the Etruscan is most like the Hawaiian, which distinguishes sex and generation, but otherwise lumps persons in those classes together. The lack of a sister does not fit;^{[citation needed]} however, construction of the Etruscan dictionary is still in progress.

Government

Giacobbe Giusti, Etruscan society

The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze statue depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman toga while engaged in rhetoric; the statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabet

The historical Etruscans had achieved a state system of society, with remnants of the chiefdom and tribal forms. In this they were ahead of the surrounding Italics, who still had chiefs and tribes. Rome was in a sense the first Italic state, but it began as an Etruscan one. It is believed that the Etruscan government style changed from total monarchy to oligarchic democracy (as the Roman Republic) in the 6th century BC. It is important to note this did not happen to all the city states.

The Etruscan state government was essentially a theocracy. The government was viewed as being a central authority, over all tribal and clan organizations. It retained the power of life and death; in fact, the gorgon, an ancient symbol of that power, appears as a motif in Etruscan decoration. The adherents to this state power were united by a common religion. Political unity in Etruscan society was the city-state, which was probably the referent of methlum, “district”. Etruscan texts name quite a number of magistrates, without much of a hint as to their function: the camthi, the parnich, the purth, the tamera, the macstrev, and so on. The people were the mech. The chief ruler of a methlum was perhaps a zilach, earlier times also lucumo (laukum), a sacral monarch (the infinitive of verb « to rule » is lucair).

All the city-states of the Etruscans were gathered into confederacies, or “leagues”. The sources tell us there were three. A league for unknown reasons, likely religious, had to include 12 city-states. The word for league was mech rasnal. Once a year the states met at a fanu, or sacred place (Latin fanum) to discuss military and political affairs, and also to choose a head of confederation, zilath mechl rasnal, who held the office for one year. The Etrurian confederacy met at the fanum Voltumnae, the « shrine of Voltumna ». Their league was called the “duodecim populi Etruriae” or the “twelve peoples of Etruria”.

The relationship between Rome and the Etruscans was not one of an outsider conquering a foreign people. The Etruscans considered Rome as one of their cities, perhaps originally in the Latian/Campanian league. It is entirely possible that the Tarquinsappealed to Lars Porsena of Clusium (Clevsin), because he was the head of the Etrurian commomwealth for that year. He would have been obliged to help the Tarquins whether he liked it or not.

The Romans attacked and annexed individual cities between 510 and 290 BC. This apparent disunity of the Etruscans was probably regarded as internal dissent by the Etruscans themselves. For example, after the sack of Rome by the Gauls, the Romans debated whether to move the city en masse to Veii, which they could not even have considered if Veii was thought to be a foreign people. Eventually Rome created treaties individually with the Etruscan states, rather than the whole. But by that time the league had fallen into disuse, due to the permanent hegemony of Rome and increasing assimilation of Etruscan civilization to it, which was a natural outcome, as Roman civilization was to a large degree Etruscan.

See also

• Roman naming conventions

Notes

1. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d See under Etruscan language.
2. ^ This standard view of the rise of Etruscan civilization is presented for example on page 5 of the Bonfantes (2002).
3. ^ A good presentation of the subject of Etruscan names can be found in the Bonfantes (2002), pages 88–89.
4. ^ The Bonfantes (2002), page 88.
5. ^ Wallace.
6. ^ The Bonfantes, pages 88–89.
7. ^ Marchesini.

References

• Bonfante, G.; L. Bonfante (2002). The Etruscan Language. An Introduction. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-0902-2.
• Marchesini, Simona. « New Studies on Etruscan Personal Names: Gentium Mobilitas » (PDF). Etruscan News. University of Massachusetts.
• Pallottino, M. (1975). The Etruscans. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-253-32080-1.
• Swaddling, Judith; Bonfante, Larissa (2006). Etruscan Myths. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70606-5. Preview Google Books.
• Torp, Alf (1906). « Etruscan Notes ». Skrifter Udgivene af Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiana. Oslo: Historisk-filosofisk Klasse, Norsk Videnskaps-Akademi. pp. 1–66.. View at Google Books.
• Wallace, Rex (2006). « Etruscan Inscriptions in the Royal Ontario Museum » (PDF). Etruscan News. University of Massachusetts Amherst (5): 5–6.

• Etruscology at Its Best, the website of Dr. Dieter H. Steinbauer, in English. Covers origins, vocabulary, grammar and place names.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_society

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Rampin Rider, Acropolis Museum

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Rampin Rider, Acropolis Museum

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Rampin Rider, Acropolis Museum

Rampin rider Louvre

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Rampin Rider, Acropolis Museum

Rampin Rider at the Acropolis Museum

The Rampin Rider or Rampin Horseman (c. 550 BC) is an equestrian statuefrom the Archaic Period of Ancient Greece. The statue was masterfully made of marble and has traces of red and black paint.

The head of the rider was found on the Acropolis of Athens in 1877 and donated to the Louvre. Parts of the body of the rider and horse were found ten years earlier in a ditch filled with statues broken during the 480 BC Persian sack of Athens. The head was not associated with the rest of the statue until 1936. The statue is displayed with a plaster cast of the head at the Acropolis Museum while the head remains at the Louvre where it is displayed with a cast of the rest of the statue.

The rider has many of the features typical of an Archaic kouros, but has several asymmetrical features that break with the period’s conventions.

Interpretations

The statue was originally thought to be a part of a set of statues, perhaps paired with another as a mounted presentation of Castor and Pollux common on vases from this period. According to another theory, the statue represents the winner of a race. This theory is supported by the crown of lovage, given to winners of the Nemean Games and the Isthmian Games, on the statue.

References

• Page at the Louvre (English): Head of a horseman, known as the « Rampin Horseman »

• Gisela M. A. Richter, L’arte greca, Torino, Einaudi, 1969.
• Jean Charbonneaux, Roland Martin; François Villard, La Grecia arcaica : (620-480 a.C.), Milano, Rizzoli, 1978. ISBN non esistente
• Humfry Payne, Paolo Enrico Arias, La scultura arcaica in marmo dell’Acropoli, Roma, L’Erma di Bretschneider, 1981, ISBN 88-7062-500-1.
• Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli, Enrico Paribeni, L’arte dell’antichità classica. Grecia, Torino, UTET Libreria, 1986, ISBN 88-7750-183-9..
• Pierluigi De Vecchi ed Elda Cerchiari, I tempi dell’arte, volume 1, Bompiani, Milano 1999. ISBN 88-451-7107-8

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rampin_Rider

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, ALESSO BALDOVINETTI: Vierge à l’Enfant, Musée du Louvre

Giacobbe Giusti, ALESSO BALDOVINETTI: Vierge à l’Enfant, Musée du Louvre

 

Alesso Baldovinetti est né à Florence.

Il fut l’élève de Domenico Veneziano avec Piero della Francesca et le maître de Domenico Ghirlandaio.

Il se situe, par son goût pour le paysage, dans la lignée du groupe des peintres réalistes et naturalistes comme Andrea del Castagno, Paolo Uccello and Domenico Veneziano ; à ce propos Giorgio Vasari dit de lui :

« Il aimait beaucoup faire des paysages et les copiait sur place, exactement comme ils sont […]. À l’Annunziata, il a représenté […] dans les ruines d’une maison, les pierres moisies, rongées par la pluie et le gel, et une grosse racine de lierre qui recouvre une partie du mur […]. Il a même pris soin de faire le dessus des feuilles d’un certain vert et le dessous d’un vert différent, comme elles sont effectivement dans la nature. »

— Giorgio Vasari, Le Vite

Il a œuvré également comme mosaïste lorsque Laurent de Médicis, pour faire renaître un art considéré à Florence comme proprement toscan, décide de restaurer et de compléter le baptistère à partir de 1453.

Œuvres

• Annonciation, 1447, Musée des Offices, Florence
• Retable Cafaggiolo, autel de la chapelle privée de la Villa Cafaggiolo¹, v.1454, 176 × 166 cm, Musée des Offices
• La Nativité, cloître de la Santissima Annunziata de Florence (1461)²
• Vierge à l’enfant avec saint Bernardin et sainte Catherine de Sienne, 1460-1470, Villa Medicea di Cerreto Guidi
• Vierge à l’Enfant, 1460-1465, Musée du Louvre
• Vierge à l’Enfant, Musée Jacquemart-André, Paris
• Portrait d’une femme en jaune, 1465, National Gallery, Londres
• Les Prophètes, Les Évangélistes, L’Annonciation³, fresques dans la chapelle funéraire du cardinal de Portugal à San Miniato al Monte (1466-1467)
• Saint Jean-Baptiste, Anges tenant le médaillon du Sauveur, mosaïques au baptistère de Florence

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alesso_Baldovinetti

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, PIETRO PERUGINO: Combat of Love, Paris, Musee du Louvre

Giacobbe Giusti, PIETRO PERUGINO: Combat of Love, Paris, Musee du Louvre

Le Combat de l’Amour et de la Chasteté

Giacobbe Giusti, PIETRO PERUGINO: Combat of Love, Paris, Musee du Louvre

Le Combat de l’Amour et de la Chasteté

Artiste	Le Pérugin
Date	1503
Commanditaire	Isabelle d’Este
Type	Tempera sur toile
Lieu de création	Mantoue
Dimensions (H × L)	160 × 191 cm
Mouvement	Renaissance italienne
Localisation	Musée du Louvre, Paris (France)
Numéro d’inventaire	INV 722

Le Combat de l’Amour et de la Chasteté (en italien : Lotta tra Amore e Castità) est une peinture à thèmes allégoriques du Pérugin, datant de 1503, conservée au Musée du Louvre à Paris.

Histoire

Le tableau est le troisième élément commandé le 19 janvier 1503 par Isabelle d’Este comme complément aux deux toiles allégoriques d’Andrea Mantegna, Le Parnasse(1497) et Minerve chassant les Vices du jardin de la Vertu (1499–1502), pour décorer son studiolo.

Le thème de la peinture a probablement été fourni par Paride da Ceresara le poète et conseiller d’Isabelle.

Il reste une volumineuse documentation concernant le thème grâce à la correspondance entre Isabelle d’Este et Le Pérugin¹ actif à l’époque dans son atelier de Florence.

« Le thème poétique que je désire vous voir peindre est le combat de l’Amour et de la Chasteté, Pallas luttant contre Vénus et l’Amour. Il faut que Pallas semble avoir presque vaincu l’Amour […] »

— Isabelle d’Este – Correspondance avec le Pérugin.

Le thème littéraire spécifié dans sa globalité faisait partie intégrante du contrat notarial et comprenait un dessin qui devait servir de base de travail au peintre qui pouvait faire l’impasse sur quelques épisodes secondaires du sujet très détaillé mais ne devait sous aucun prétexte ajouter ou modifier des figures à son initiative : quand Le Pérugin peignit Vénus nue plutôt qu’habillée, la marquise protesta vigoureusement par l’intermédiaire de ses consultants chargés de visiter régulièrement l’atelier de l’artiste.

Lors de la livraison du tableau advenue en 1505, Isabelle ne fut pas pleinement satisfaite : elle dit que le tableau lui aurait plu davantage s’il était réalisé en peinture à l’huile alors qu’il l’était en tempera à sa demande pour être en harmonie avec le style de Mantegna. Elle ne commandera plus aucun tableau à l’artiste et déclina même en 1524 une offre de son épouse Chiara Fancelli, une peinture Mars et Venus surpris par Vulcain de son défunt mari².
Le tableau et tous ceux du studiolo, ont été offerts par Charles I^er de Mantoue au cardinal de Richelieu. Transféré à Paris il rejoignit le patrimoine royal pour terminer finalement au Musée du Louvre.

Thème

Cette section est vide, insuffisamment détaillée ou incomplète. Votre aide est la bienvenue ! Comment faire ?

L’œuvre reprend les représentations allégoriques de l’Amour et de la Chasteté placé dans un cadre de représentations mythologiques, symboliques des thèmes choisis.

Description

La lutte entre les personnages principaux se déroule dans un décor constitué d’un doux paysage typique du Pérugin, constitué de basses collines pointillées d’arbrisseaux qui se diluent dans une perspective atmosphérique vers l’horizon d’un ciel clair.

Parmi les nombreux personnages mythologiques se distinguent : Minerve, Diane, Venus, Antéros, des nymphes, faunes, satires et amours.

En arrière-plan sont représentés divers épisodes mythologiques liés à la victoire de la chasteté sur l’amour charnel : Apollon et Daphné, Jupiter et Europe, Mercure et Glaucera, Polyphème et Galatée, Pluton et Proserpine et Neptuneavec la nymphe qui se mue en corneille.

Analyse

La composition résulte un peu confuse, avec une certaine carence dans le dessin comparée aux réalisations de Mantegna. Le Pérugin avait été probablement gêné lors de la peinture de la composition par son contenu intimiste plutôt que par une œuvre de grand format dont il était coutumier.

Notes et références

• (it) Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en italien intitulé « Lotta tra Amore e Castità » (voir la liste des auteurs).

1. ↑ La correspondance est constituée de 53 lettres
2. ↑ (en) Stephen John Campbell, The cabinet of eros: Renaissance mythological painting and the studiolo of Isabelle d’Este, p. 175, 2004[1] [archive]

Le Combat de l’Amour et de la Chasteté sur Commons

Articles connexes

• Liste d’œuvres du Pérugin
• Studiolo d’Isabelle d’Este

Liens externes

• Notice n^o 27204 [archive], base Atlas, musée du Louvre
• Noticen^o 000PE026941 [archive], base Joconde, ministère français de la Culture

Bibliographie

document utilisé comme source pour la rédaction de cet article.

• Vittoria Garibaldi, Perugino, in Pittori del Rinascimento, Scala, Florence, 2004 (ISBN 888117099X)
• Pierluigi De Vecchi, Elda Cerchiari, I tempi dell’arte, volume 2, Bompiani, Milan, 1999. (ISBN 88-451-7212-0)
• Stefano Zuffi, Il Quattrocento, Electa, Milan, 2004.(ISBN 8837023154)

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Combat_de_l%27Amour_et_de_la_Chastet%C3%A9

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

 

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA MANTEGNA: St. Sebastian (detail), Andrea Mantegna, 1480, Musée du Louvre, Paris

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA MANTEGNA: St. Sebastian (detail), Andrea Mantegna, 1480, Musée du Louvre, Paris

 

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA MANTEGNA: St. Sebastian (detail), Andrea Mantegna, 1480, Musée du Louvre, Paris

St. Sebastian (detail), Andrea Mantegna, 1480, Musée du Louvre, Paris

Saint Sebastian (died c. AD 288) was an early Christian saint and martyr. According to traditional belief, he was killed during the Roman emperor Diocletian‘s persecution of Christians. He is commonly depicted in art and literature tied to a post or tree and shot with arrows. Despite this being the most common artistic depiction of Sebastian, he was, according to legend, rescued and healed by Irene of Rome. Shortly afterwards he went to Diocletian to warn him about his sins, and as a result was clubbed to death.^[1][2] He is venerated in the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church.

The details of Saint Sebastian’s martyrdom were first spoken of by 4th-century bishop Ambrose of Milan (Saint Ambrose), in his sermon (number 22) on Psalm 118. Ambrose stated that Sebastian came from Milan and that he was already venerated there at that time. Saint Sebastian is a popular male saint, especially among athletes.^[3][4][5]

References

1. ^ Jump up to:^a b « How did St Sebastian become an enduring, homo-erotic icon? ». UK: The Independent. 10 February 2008..
2. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Fr. Paolo O. Pirlo, SHMI (1997). « St. Sebastian ». My First Book of Saints. Holy Mary Immaculate – Quality Catholic Publications. pp. 22–23. ISBN 971-91595-4-5.
3. Jump up^ « About St Sebastian – Associated & Catholic Colleges of WA ». http://www.accsport.asn.au. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
4. Jump up^ White, Jackie. « The Patron Saint of Sports ». Retrieved 3 December2017.
5. Jump up^ « About St Sebastian – Associated & Catholic Colleges of WA ». http://www.accsport.asn.au. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
6. Jump up^ « Saint Sebastian Interceding for the Plague Stricken ». The Walters Art Museum.
7. Jump up^ Acta S. Sebastiani Martyris, in J.-P. Migne, Patrologiae Cursus Completus Accurante (Paris 1845), XVII, 1021–581221; abbreviated in Jacob de Voragine, Legenda Aurea.
8. Jump up^ Brewer, Ebenezer Cobham. A Dictionary of Miracles: Imitative, Realistic, and Dogmatic (Chatto and Windus, 1901), p.11.
9. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Butler, Alban. Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs and Other Principal Saints, Vol.I},
10. Jump up^ « Reliquary of St Sebastian ». Metalwork. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
11. Jump up^ « Iacobus de Voragine: Historia de Sancto Sebastiano ». Retrieved 2016-06-03.
12. Jump up^ « hericius definition | Latin Dictionary ». Retrieved 2016-06-03.
13. Jump up^ « echinus definition | Latin Dictionary ». Retrieved 2016-06-03.
14. Jump up^ « Internet History Sourcebooks: Medieval Sourcebook: The Golden Legend: Volume II: The Life of Sebastian ». Retrieved 2016-06-03.
15. Jump up^ City of Ebersberg website: Kloster Ebersberg (German)
16. Jump up^ Thomas Foster Earle, K. J. P. Lowe: Black Africans in Renaissance Europe, p. 191, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
17. Jump up^ « Vincoli ». IT: Unica. Archived from the original (JPEG) on 2006-03-10..
18. Jump up^ « Catholic Encyclopedia ». 1908..
19. Jump up^ Barker, 94–95
20. Jump up^ Barker, 96–97
21. Jump up^ Boeckl, Christine M (2000). Images of Plague and Pestilence: Iconography and Iconology. Truman State University. pp. 76–80. ISBN 978-0-943549-85-9..
22. Jump up^ Barker, Sheila, The Making of a Plague Saint, ch. 4 (pp. 114–7 especially) in Piety and Plague: from Byzantium to the Baroque, Ed. Franco Mormando, Thomas Worcester Truman State University, 2007,ISBN 1-931112-73-8, ISBN 978-1-931112-73-4, Google books.
23. Jump up^ Boeckl, p. 77
24. Jump up^ Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 1600–1800, Yale UP, 1995, ISBN 0300074514, p.22
25. Jump up^ Barker, 117
26. Jump up^ Zwingenberger, Jeanette (2011). Schiele. New York: Parkstone International. p. 154. ISBN 9781780421957.
27. Jump up^ « Fabiola (1949) ». BFI. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
28. Jump up^ « Carrie (1976) – Trivia – IMDb ». Retrieved 2016-06-03.
29. Jump up^ « A Brutal Nobility: Painting Death in The House with Laughing Windows (Pupi Avati, 1976) ». Retrieved 2016-09-21.
30. Jump up^ « Damien Hirst ». MCA Denver. Archived from the original on 2010-04-23..
31. Jump up^ Buchanan, Matthew. « Losing My Religion ». Music Videos Love Movies. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
32. Jump up^ Buckley, David (2002). R.E.M.: Fiction: An Alternative Biography. Virgin. pp. 206–07. ISBN 978-1-85227-927-1.
33. Jump up^ notasfarwest (2015-09-07), The Mountain Goats – Hail St. Sebastian, retrieved 2017-06-25
34. Jump up^ « Merħba – Parroċċa San Sebastjan ». Parroċċa San Sebastjan. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
35. Jump up^ St. Sebastian Society web page: http://urnewman.org/groups/st-sebastian
36. Jump up^ Carl Schurz, Reminiscences (3 vols.), New York: McClure Publ., 1907, vol. 1, chap. 2, pp. 46–8; chap. 3, pp. 81–3.
37. Jump up^ Sebastian Tales

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Sebastian

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

 

Giacobbe Giusti, SASSETTA: Madonna col Bambino e angeli (Paris, Musée du Louvre)

Giacobbe Giusti, SASSETTA: Madonna col Bambino e angeli (Paris, Musée du Louvre)

Giacobbe Giusti, SASSETTA: Madonna col Bambino e angeli (Paris, Musée du Louvre)

Madonna col Bambino e angeli (Paris, Musée du Louvre)

Naissance	1392 Sienne
Décès	1450 Sienne
Nom dans la langue maternelle	Stefano di Giovanni
Activité	Peintre

Œuvres principales

Le Mariage mystique de saint François d’Assise

Sassetta ou Il Sassetta né Stefano di Giovanni ou encore dénomméStefano di Giovanni di Consolo da Cortona (Sienne ou Cortone, 1392 – 1450 ou 1451) est un peintre siennois de style gothique italien.

Biographie

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Probablement élève de Paolo di Giovanni Fei et peintre reconnu par ses condisciples autant à Siennequ’à Florence. Il est connu sous le nom de Sassetta, bien que cette appellation date seulement du xviii^e siècle et qu’elle soit peut-être le résultat d’une lecture erronée de documents.

Actif également à Cortone(Polyptyque de San Domenico), il exécuta entre 1437 et 1444, un retable aujourd’hui démembré pour l’église Saint-François à Borgo San Sepolcro¹.

Œuvres

Sa première œuvre connue est le polyptyque de la Corporation des lainiers (1423-1426). Une autre réalisation remarquable est le Retable della Nevi (des neiges), actuellement divisé entre la collection Contini Bonacossi et le Palais Pitti.

Bibliographie

• (it) Luciano Bellosi, Sassetta e i pittori toscani tra XIII e XV secolo, a cura di Luciano Bellosi e Alessandro Angelini, Studio per edizioni scelte, Florence (1986)
• (en) Bernard Berenson, Sassetta, Florence (1946)
  • Sassetta : un peintre siennois de la légende franciscaine, A. Michel, 1948
• (en) Enzo Carli, Sassetta’s Borgo San Sepolcro Altarpiece, Burlington Magazine 43, (1951)
• (it) Enzo Carli, Sassetta e il « Maestro dell’Osservanza », Milan (1957)
• (it) Enzo Carli, I Pittori senesi, Milan (1971)
• (en) John Pope-Hennessy, Sassetta, Londres (1939)
• (en) John Pope-Hennessy, « Rethinking Sassetta », dans Burlington Magazine 98 (1956)
• (en) Federico Zeri, Towards a Reconstruction of Sassetta’s Arte della Lana Triptych, Burlington Magazine 98 (1956)
• Guide des Musées et de la Cité du Vatican, Edizioni Musei Vaticani, 2005(ISBN 88-86921-80-2)

Documentaire

• Palettes, documentaire vidéo : Sassetta, polyptyque pour San Francesco à Borgo Sansepolcro, 30 min, 1999.

Notes

1. ↑ Nicoletta Pons, « Notices biographiques », dans Mina Gregori, Le Musée des Offices et le Palais Pitti, Paris, Editions Place des Victoires, 2000, p. 666
2. ↑ James Stourton, Petits Musées, grandes collections : Promenade à travers l’Europe, Scala, 2003, p.243
3. ↑ Mina Gregori, Le Musée des Offices et le Palais Pitti : La Peinture à Florence, Editions Place des Victoires, 2000(ISBN 2-84459-006-3), p. 84
4. ↑ Giovanna Nepi Sciré, La Peinture dans les Musées de Venise, Editions Place des Victoires, 2008(ISBN 978-2-8099-0019-4), p. 97

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassetta_(peintre)

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, PIETRO da RIMINI:La Déposition de Croix , Musée du Louvre, Paris

Giacobbe Giusti, PIETRO da RIMINI:La Déposition de Croix , Musée du Louvre, Paris

Giacobbe Giusti, PIETRO da RIMINI:La Déposition de Croix , Musée du Louvre, Paris

La Déposition de Croix (1320-1325), Musée du Louvre, Paris

Naissance	1280 Rimini
Décès	1350
Activité	Peintre
Lieu de travail	Rimini

Giacobbe Giusti, PIETRO da RIMINI

 

Crucifix d’Urbania

Pietro da Rimini, (Rimini, 1280–1350) est un peintre italien de l’école de Rimini qui a été actif dans la première moitié du xiv^e siècle.

Biographie

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Pietro da Rimini, comme les autres artistes de l’école de Rimini, a été fortement influencé par le cycle de fresques (aujourd’hui perdues) que Giotto – en route vers Padoue, où il se rend pour peindre les fresques de la chapelle des Scrovegni – a peintes pour l’église San Francesco, lorsque celui-ci a séjourné à Rimini en 1303¹.

Œuvres

• Crucifix, chiesa dei Morti, puiscathédrale, Urbania, Italie.
• Crucifix, Galleria Nazionale delle Marche, Urbino.
• Crucifix (attribution autrefois au Maestro del Refettorio di Pomposa)², Santarcangelo di Romagna
• Crucifixion, musée de Hambourg.
• Déposition de la croix, Musée du Louvre, Paris.
• Nativité (1325-1330), Temperasur panneau de bois, 20 × 16 cm, collection privée.
• Annonciation, Nativité, Adoration des mages, Crucifixion, Baptême du Christ, Jardin des Oliviers, Saints, les Évangélistes et les Docteurs (1330), fresques de la voûte de la chapelle S. Chiara (Ravenne), maintenant au musée de Ravenne.
• Saint François (1333) (fresque), à l’origine en l’église San Niccoló de Jesi, maintenant au couvent San Francesco de Montottone.
• Scènes de la vie du Christ(1330) , Berlin et musée Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid.
• Le Christ au jardin des oliviers, collection Henckell, Wiesbaden.
• La Dormition de la Vierge(0,20 × 0,15 m), Musée Fabre, Montpellier³.

Bibliographie

• Luciano Bellosi, Giotto et son héritage artistique⁴, traduit de l’italien par CIEL⁵, 1 vol. 383 p. – Paris : Le Figaro, coll. Les grands maîtres de l’art n° 20, 2008 – (ISBN978-2-81050-019-2)
• (it) Cesare Brandi (a cura di Maria Andeloro), Tra Medioevo e Rinascimento: scritti sull’arte da Giotto a Jacopo della Quercia, Milan, Jaka Book, 2006(lire en ligne [archive]), p. 60-63

Notes et références

1. ↑Voir la biographie de Giotto sur le site du dictionnaire Larousse [archive]
2. ↑« Crocifisso Pietro da Rimini » [archive], sur Catalogue fondazionezeri
3. ↑Michel Hilaire, « Fabre Collectionneur et donateur », L’Objet d’Art, vol. N° Spécial François-Xavier Fabre, n^o 2H,‎ 2000, p.78
4. ↑Les peintres étudiés par Luciano Bellosi comme « héritiers » de Giotto : Filippo Rusuti, Pietro Cavallini, Duccio di Buoninsegna, Giovanni da Rimini, Neri da Rimini, Pietro da Rimini, Simone Martini, Pietro Lorenzetti, Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Matteo Giovannetti, Maso di Banco, Puccio Capanna, Taddeo Gaddi, Giovanni da Milano, Giottino, Giusto de Menabuoi, Altichiero da Zevio, Jacopo Avanzi, Jean Pucelle, les Frères de Limbourg
5. ↑CIEL = Centre international d’études linguistiques

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_da_Rimini

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Horae

Giacobbe Giusti, Horae

Giacobbe Giusti, Horae

The Hora of Spring

Detail of File:Sandro Botticelli – La nascita di Venere – Google Art Project – edited.jpg: The Hora holding out a cloak for Venus.

Giacobbe Giusti, Horae

 

Dionysus leading the Horae (Neo-AtticRoman relief, 1st century)

In Greek mythology the Horae (/ˈhɔːriː/) or Horai(/ˈhɔːraɪ/) or Hours(Greek: Ὧραι, Hōrai, pronounced [hɔ̂ːraj], « Seasons ») were the goddesses of the seasons and the natural portions of time.

Etymology

The word « Horae » comes from the Proto-Indo-European stem *Hioh₁-r-« year. »^[1]

Function

Giacobbe Giusti, Horae

A detail of Horae Serenae by Edward Poynter (1894)

They were originally the personifications of nature in its different seasonal aspects, but in later times they were regarded as goddesses of order in general and natural justice. « They bring and bestow ripeness, they come and go in accordance with the firm law of the periodicities of nature and of life », Karl Kerenyi observed: « Hora means ‘the correct moment’. »^[2] Traditionally, they guarded the gates of Olympus, promoted the fertility of the earth, and rallied the stars and constellations. The course of the seasons was also symbolically described as the dance of the Horae, and they were accordingly given the attributes of spring flowers, fragrance and graceful freshness. For example, in Hesiod’s Works and Days, the fair-haired Horai, together with the Charites and Peitho crown Pandora—she of « all gifts »—with garlands of flowers.^[3] Similarly Aphrodite, emerging from the sea and coming ashore at Cyprus, is dressed and adorned by the Horai,^[4] and, according to a surviving fragment of the epic Cypria,^[5] Aphrodite wore clothing made for her by the Charites and Horai, dyed with spring flowers, such as the Horai themselves wear.

Greek deities series
Primordial deities Titans and Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Other deities
Personified concepts
Achlys Adikia Alala Algos Amphilogiai Androktasiai Angelia Apate Atë Bia Charites Dike Dysnomia Epiales Eris Eros Harmonia Hedone Homados Horae Horkos Hypnos Hysminai Kratos Kydoimos Lampetia Limos Machai Metis Mnemosyne Moirai Oneiroi Palioxis Polemos Proioxis Neikea Nemesis Nike Pandia Phaethusa Phonoi Ponos Thanatos Themis Zelos
v t e

Names and numbers

The number of Horae varied according to different sources, but was most commonly three: either the trio of Thallo, Auxo and Carpo(goddesses of the order of nature) or Eunomia (goddess of good order and lawful conduct) and her sisters Dike (goddess of Justice) and Eirene (goddess of Peace).^[6]

The earlier Argive Horae

In Argos, two Horae, rather than three, were recognised presumably winter and summer: Auxesia(possibly another name for Auxo) and Damia (possibly another name for Carpo).

In late euhemerist interpretations, they were seen as Cretan maidens who were worshipped as goddesses after they had been wrongfully stoned to death.

The classical Horae triads

The earliest written mention of Horai is in the Iliad where they appear as keepers of Zeus‘s cloud gates.^[7] « Hardly any traces of that function are found in the subsequent tradition, » Karl Galinsky remarked in passing.^[8] They were daughters of Zeus and Themis, half-sisters to the Moirai.^[9]

The Horai are mentioned in two aspects in Hesiod and the Homeric Hymns:

• in one variant emphasizing their fruitful aspect, Thallo, Auxo, and Carpo—the goddesses of the three seasons the Greeks recognized: spring, summer and autumn—were worshipped primarily amongst rural farmers throughout Greece;
• in the other variant, emphasising the « right order » aspect of the Horai, Hesiod says that Zeus wedded « bright Themis » who bore Diké, Eunomia, and Eirene, who were law-and-order goddesses that maintained the stability of society; they were worshipped primarily in the cities of Athens, Argos and Olympia.

First triad

Of the first, more familiar, triad associated with Aphrodite and Zeus is their origins as emblems of times of life, growth (and the classical three seasons of year):

Look up Thallo, Auxo, or Carpo in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Thallo (Θαλλώ, literally « The one who brings blossoms »; or Flora for Romans) or Thalatte was the goddess of spring, buds and blooms, a protector of youth.
• Auxo (Αὐξώ. « Increaser » as in plant growth) or Auxesia was worshipped (alongside Hegemone) in Athens as one of their two Charites, Auxo was the Charis of spring and Hegemone was the Charis of autumn. One of the Horae, and the goddess and personification of the season of summer; she is the protector of vegetation and plants, and growth and fertility.
• Carpo (Καρπώ), Carpho or Xarpo (not to be mistaken with Karpos) was the one who brings food (though Robert Graves in The Greek Myths (1955) translates this name as « withering ») and was in charge of autumn, ripening, and harvesting, as well as guarding the way to Mount Olympus and letting back the clouds surrounding the mountain if one of the gods left. She was an attendant to Persephone, Aphrodite and Hera, and was also associated with Dionysus, Apollo and Pan.

At Athens, two Horae; Thallo (the Hora of spring) and Carpo (the Hora of autumn), also appear in rites of Attica noted by Pausanias in the 2nd century AD.^[10] Thallo, Auxo and Carpo are often accompanied by Chione, a daughter of Boreas (the god/personification of the North Wind) and Orithyia/Oreithyia (originally a mortal princess, who was later deifyied as a goddess of cold mountain winds), and the goddess/personification of snow and winter. Along with Chione, Thallo, Auxo and Carpo were a part of the entourage of the goddess of the turn of the seasons, Persephone.

Giacobbe Giusti, Horae

Allegory of peace and happiness of the state. In this picture we can see Dike (the justice), Eunomia (order) and, in the center, Eirene (the Peace)

Second triad

Of the second triad associated to Themis and Zeus for law and order:

• Diké (Δίκη, « Justice »; Iustitiafor Romans) was the goddess of moral justice: she ruled over human justice, as her mother Themis ruled over divine justice. The anthropomorphisation of Diké as an ever-young woman dwelling in the cities of men was so ancient and strong that in the 3rd century BCE Aratus in Phaenomena 96 asserted that she was born a mortal and that, though Zeus placed her on earth to keep mankind just, he quickly learned this was impossible and placed her next to him on Olympus, as the Greek astronomical/astrological constellation The Maiden.
• Eunomia (Εὐνομία, « Order », governance according to good laws) was the goddess of law and legislation. The same or a different goddess may have been a daughter of Hermes and Aphrodite.
• Eirene or Irene (Εἰρήνη. « Peace »; the Roman equivalent was Pax), was the personification of peace and wealth, and was depicted in art as a beautiful young woman carrying a cornucopia, scepter and a torch or rhyton.

Third triad

Hyginus (Fabulae 183) identifies a third set of Horae:

• Pherusa (Substance, farm estates),
• Euporie or Euporia (Abundance), and
• Orthosie or Orthosia (Prosperity).

The Four Seasons

Nonnus in his Dionysiaca mentions a distinct set of four Horae, the daughters of Helios. Quintus Smyrnaeus also attributes the Horae as the daughters of Helios and Selene, and describes them as the four handmaidens of Hera.^[11] The Greek words for the four seasons of year:

• Eiar (Spring),
• Theros (Summer),
• Phthinoporon (Autumn), and
• Cheimon (Winter).

The Hours

Giacobbe Giusti, Horae

The Hours by Edward Burne-Jones (1882)

Finally, a quite separate suite of Horae personified the twelve hours (originally only ten), as tutelary goddesses of the times of day. The hours run from just before sunrise to just after sunset, thus winter hours are short, summer hours are long:

The nine Hours

According to Hyginus, the list is only of nine, borrowed from the three classical triads alternated:

• Auco, or perhaps Auxo (Growth, from the 1st triad),
• Eunomia (Order, from the 2nd triad),
• Pherusa (Substance, from the 3rd triad),
• Carpo (Fruit, from the 1st triad),
• Diké (Justice, from the 2nd triad),
• Euporie or Euporia (Abundance, from the 3rd triad),
• Eirene or Irene (Peace, from the 2nd triad),
• Orthosie or Orthosia (Prosperity, from the 3rd triad) and
• Thallo (Flora, from the 1st triad).^[12]

The ten or twelve Hours

Giacobbe Giusti, Horae

Apollo with the Hours by Georg Friedrich Kersting (1822)

This last distinct set of ten or twelve Hours is much less known:

• Auge, first light (initially not part of the set),
• Anatolê or Anatolia, sunrise,
• Mousikê or Musica, the morning hour of music and study,
• Gymnastikê, Gymnastica or Gymnasia, the morning hour of education, training, gymnastics/exercise,
• Nymphê or Nympha, the morning hour of ablutions (bathing, washing),
• Mesembria, noon,
• Sponde, libations poured after lunch,
• Elete, prayer, the first of the afternoon work hours,
• Aktê, Acte or Cypris, eating and pleasure, the second of the afternoon work hours,
• Hesperis, end of the afternoon work hours, start of evening,
• Dysis, sunset,
• Arktos or Arctus, night sky, constellation (initially not part of the set).

Notes

1. Jump up^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 1681.
2. Jump up^ References to the Horai in classical sources are credited in Karl Kerenyi’s synthesis of all the mythology, The Gods of the Greeks 1951, pp 101f and passim (index, « Horai »)
3. Jump up^ Works and Days lines 74-75.
4. Jump up^ Homeric Hymn 6.5-13.
5. Jump up^ Cypria, fr. 4.
6. Jump up^ Eunomia. Theoi Project.
7. Jump up^ Iliad 5. 749-51.
8. Jump up^ Karl Galinsky, « Venus, Polysemy, and the Ara Pacis Augustae » American Journal of Archaeology 96.3 (July 1992:457-475) p. 459.
9. Jump up^ G.M.A. Hanfmann, The Seasons Sarcophagus at Dumbarton Oaks(Cambridge, Massachusetts) 1951; V. Machaira, in Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae 5.1 (1990), p 502f.
10. Jump up^ Pausanias, 9.35.2. Compare Hyginus, Fabula 183.
11. Jump up^ Hammond, « SELENE », pp. 970–971; Quintus Smyrnaeus, 10.336 ff. pp. 442–443
12. Jump up^ Hyginus Fabulae 183.

References

• Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996, ISBN 978-0-631-20102-1. « Horae » p. 217
• Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). « Horae »

•  The dictionary definition of Horae at Wiktionary
•  Media related to Horae at Wikimedia Commons
• Theoi Project: Horai

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horae

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Valeria Messalina

Giacobbe Giusti, Valeria Messalina

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Valeria Messalina

 Messalina (disambiguation).

Valeria Messalina Giacobbe Giusti, Valeria Messalina
Empress consort of the Roman Empire
Tenure	24 January 41 – 48
Born	25 January 17 or 20 Rome, Roman Empire
Died	48 (aged 31 or 28) Gardens of Lucullus, Rome, Roman Empire
Spouse	Claudius
Issue	Claudia Octavia, Empress of Rome Tiberius Claudius Caesar Britannicus
House	Julio-Claudian (by marriage) gens Valeria (by birth)
Father	Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus
Mother	Domitia Lepida the Younger

Valeria Messalina^[1] ([waˈɫɛrja mɛssaːˈliːna], sometimes spelled Messallina; c. 17/20–48) was the third wife of the Roman Emperor Claudius. She was a paternal cousin of the Emperor Nero, a second-cousin of the Emperor Caligula, and a great-grandniece of the Emperor Augustus. A powerful and influential woman with a reputation for promiscuity, she allegedly conspired against her husband and was executed on the discovery of the plot. Her notorious reputation arguably results from political bias, but works of art and literature have perpetuated it into modern times.

Early life

Giacobbe Giusti, Valeria Messalina

Messalina holding her son Britannicus, Louvre

Messalina was the daughter of Domitia Lepida the Youngerand her first cousin Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus.^[2][3]Her mother was the youngest child of the consul Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Antonia Major. Her mother’s brother, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, had been the first husband of the future Empress Agrippina the Younger and the biological father of the future Emperor Nero, making Nero Messalina’s first cousin despite a seventeen-year age difference. Messalina’s grandmothers Claudia Marcella and Antonia Major were half sisters. Claudia Marcella, Messalina’s paternal grandmother, was the daughter of Augustus‘ sister Octavia the Younger by her marriage to Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor. Antonia Major, Messalina’s maternal grandmother, was the elder daughter of Octavia by her marriage to Mark Antony, and was Claudius’ maternal aunt. There was, therefore, a large amount of inbreeding in the family.

Little is known about Messalina’s life prior to her marriage in 38 to Claudius, her first cousin once removed, who was then about 47 years old. Two children were born as a result of their union: a daughter Claudia Octavia (born 39 or 40), a future empress, stepsister and first wife to the emperor Nero; and a son, Britannicus. When the Emperor Caligula was murdered in 41, the Praetorian Guard proclaimed Claudius the new emperor and Messalina became empress.

Reputation

With her accession to power, Messalina enters history with a reputation as ruthless, predatory and sexually insatiable. Her husband is represented as easily led by her and unconscious of her many adulteries. In 48 AD, he went away on a trip and was informed when he returned that Messalina had gone so far as to marry her latest lover, Senator Gaius Silius. While many would have ordered her death, the Emperor offered her another chance. Seeing that as weakness, one of his head officers went behind the Emperor’s back and ordered Messalina’s death. Upon hearing the news, the Emperor did not react and simply asked for another chalice of wine. The Roman Senate then ordered a damnatio memoriae so that Messalina’s name would be removed from all public and private places and all statues of her would be taken down.

Messalina working in a brothel: etching by Agostino Carracci, late 16th century

The historians who relay such stories, principally Tacitus and Suetonius, wrote some 70 years after the events in an environment hostile to the imperial line to which Messalina had belonged. Suetonius’ history is largely scandal-mongering. Tacitus claims to be transmitting ‘what was heard and written by my elders’ without naming sources other than the memoirs of Agrippina the Younger, who had arranged to displace Messalina’s children in the imperial succession and was therefore particularly interested in blackening her predecessor’s name.^[4] It has been argued that what passes for history is largely a result of the political sanctions that followed her death.^[5]

Accusations of sexual excess were a tried and tested smear tactic and the result of ‘politically motivated hostility’.^[6] Two accounts especially have added to her notoriety. One is the story of her all-night sex competition with a prostitute in Book X of Pliny the Elder‘s Natural History, according to which the competition lasted for 24 hours and Messalina won with a score of 25 partners.^[7] The poet Juvenal gives an equally well known description in his sixth satire of how the Empress used to work clandestinely all night in a brothel under the name of the She-Wolf.^[8] He also alludes to the story of how she compelled Gaius Silius to divorce his wife and marry her in his Satire X.^[9]

Ancestry

showAncestors of Messalina

Messalina in the arts

Peder Severin Krøyer, Messalina, 1881, Gothenburg Museum of Art

To call a woman « a Messalina » indicates a devious and sexually voracious personality. The historical figure and her fate were often used in the arts to make a moral point, but there was often as well a prurient fascination with her sexually-liberated behaviour.^[10] In modern times, that has led to exaggerated works which have been described as romps.^[11]

The ambivalent attitude to Messalina can be seen in the late mediaeval French prose work in the J. Paul Getty Museumillustrated by the Master of Boucicaut, Tiberius, Messalina, and Caligula reproach one another in the midst of flames. It recounts a dialogue that takes place in hell between the three characters from the same imperial line. Messalina wins the debate by demonstrating that their sins were far worse than hers and suggests that they repent of their own wickedness before reproaching her as they had done.^[12]

While Messalina’s wicked behavior towards others is given full emphasis, and even exaggerated in early works, her sexual activities have been treated more sympathetically. In the 1524 illustrations of 16 sexual positions known as I Modi, each was named after a couple from Classical history or myth, which included « Messalina in the Booth of Lisisca ». Although early editions were destroyed by religious censorship, Agostino Caracci‘s later copies have survived (see above).

Later painting and sculpture

One of the few avenues to drawing a moral lesson from the story of Messalina in painting was to picture her violent end. An early example was Francesco Solimena‘s The Death of Messalina (1708).^[13] In this scene of vigorous action, a Roman soldier pulls back his arm to stab the Empress while fending off her mother. A witness in armour observes calmly from the shadows in the background. Georges Rochegrosse‘s painting of 1916 is a reprise of the same scene.^[14] A mourning woman dressed in black leaves with her face covered as a soldier drags back Messalina’s head, watched by a courtier with the order for execution in his hand. The Danish royal painter Nicolai Abildgaard, however, preferred to feature “The Dying Messalina and her Mother” (1797) in a quieter setting. The mother weeps beside her daughter as she lies extended on the ground in a garden setting.^[15] A French treatment by Victor Biennoury (1823–1893) makes the lesson of poetic justice plainer by specifically identifying the scene of Messalina’s death as the garden which she had obtained by having its former owner executed on a false charge. Now she crouches at the foot of a wall carved with the name of Lucullus and is denounced by a dark-clothed figure as a soldier advances on her drawing his sword.^[16]

Two Low Countries painters emphasised Messalina’s depravity by picturing her wedding with Gaius Silius. The one by Nicolaus Knüpfer, dated about 1650, is so like contemporary brothel scenes that its subject is ambiguous and has been disputed. A richly dressed drunkard lies back on a bed between two women while companions look anxiously out of the window and another struggles to draw his sword.^[17]The later “Landscape with Messalina’s Wedding” by Victor Honoré Janssens pictures the seated empress being attired before the ceremony.^[18] Neither scene looks much like a wedding, but rather they indicate the age’s sense of moral outrage at this travesty of marriage. That was further underlined by a contemporary Tarot card in which card 6, normally titled “The Lover(s)”, has been retitled “Shameless” (impudique) and pictures Messalina leaning against a carved chest. Beneath is the explanation that “she reached such a point of insolence that, because of the stupidity of her husband, she dared to marry a young Roman publicly in the Emperor’s absence”.^[19]

Messalina, Eugène Cyrille Brunet(1884). Museum of Fine Arts of Rennes.

Later artists show scenes of more overt debauchery or, like the Italian A. Pigma in When Claudius is away, Messalina will play (1911),^[20] hint that it will soon follow. What was to follow is depicted in Federico Faruffini‘s The orgies of Messalina(1867–1868).^[21] A more private liaison is treated in Joaquín Sorolla y Bastida‘s Messalina in the Arms of the Gladiator(1886).^[22] This takes place in an interior, with the empress reclining bare breasted against the knees of a naked gladiator.

Juvenal’s account of her nights spent in the brothel is commonly portrayed. Gustave Moreau painted her leading another man onto the bed while an exhausted prostitute sleeps in the background,^[23] while in Paul Rouffio’s painting of 1875 she reclines bare-breasted as a slave offers grapes.^[24] The Dane Peder Severin Krøyer depicted her standing, her full body apparent under the thin material of her dress. The ranks of her customers are just visible behind the curtain against which she stands (see above). Two drawings by Aubrey Beardsley were produced for a private printing of Juvenal’s satires (1897). The one titled Messalina and her companion showed her on the way to the brothel,^[25] while a rejected drawing is usually titled Messalina returning from the bath.^[26]

Alternatively, artists drew on Pliny’s account of her sex competition. The Brazilian Henrique Bernardelli (1857-1936) showed her lying across the bed at the moment of exhaustion afterwards.^[27] So also did Eugène Cyrille Brunet‘s dramatic marble sculpture, dating from 1884 (see above), while in the Czech Jan Štursa‘s standing statue of 1912 she is holding a last piece of clothing by her side at the outset.^[28]

Stage productions

One of the earliest stage productions to feature the fall of the empress was The Tragedy of Messalina(1639) by Nathanael Richards,^[29] where she is depicted as a monster and used as a foil to attack the Roman Catholic wife of the English king Charles I.^[30] She is treated as equally villainous in the VenetianPietro Zaguri’s La Messalina (1656). This was a 4-act prose tragedy with four songs, described as an opera scenica, that revolved around the affair with Gaius Silius that brought about her death. Carlo Pallavicino was to follow with a full blown Venetian opera in 1679 that combined eroticism with morality.^[31]

During the last quarter of the 19th century the idea of the femme fatale came into prominence and encouraged many more works featuring Messalina. 1874 saw the Austrian verse tragedy Arria und Messalina by Adolf Wilbrandt^[32] which was staged with success across Europe for many years. It was followed in 1877 by Pietro Cossa‘s Italian verse tragedy, where Messalina figures as a totally unrestrained woman in pursuit of love.^[33] Another 5-act verse tragedy was published in Philadelphia in 1890,^[34] authored by Algernon Sydney Logan (1849-1925), who had liberal views on sex.^[35]

As well as drama, the story of Messalina was adapted to ballet and opera. Luigi Danesi’s 1884 ballet was made a fantastical spectacle at the Eden-Theatre in Paris, with its elephants, horses, massive crowd scenes and circus games in which rows of bare-legged female gladiators preceded the fighters.^[36][37] Isidore de Lara‘s opera Messaline, based on a 4-act verse tragedy by Armand Silvestre and Eugène Morand, centred upon the love of the empress for a poet and then his gladiator brother. It opened in Monte Carlo in 1899 and went on to Covent Garden.^[38] The ailing Henri de Toulouse-Lautrecsaw the Bordeaux production and was inspired to paint six scenes from it, including Messalina Seated^[39] and Messalina descending the staircase.^[40]

In 1914 there was a 3-act German Expressionist tragedy by Hermann Kesser, Kaiserin Messalina. And in 2009 the theme was updated by Benjamin Askew in his UK play In Bed With Messalina, which features her final hours.^[41]

Stars of stage and screen

From the last quarter of the 19th century onwards, the role of Messalina has been as much about the stardom of those who played her as about the social message of the works in which she appeared.^[42]The star’s name appeared in large print on the posters of the works in which she played. She was constantly featured in the gossip columns. Her role was iconised photographically, which she often inscribed for her admirers.^[43] Pictures of her as Messalina adorned the theatre magazines and were sold in their thousands as postcards. This was as true in drama and opera as it was of those who portrayed the empress in movies and television films or miniseries. The role itself added to or established their reputations. And, with the growing permissiveness of modern times, that might rather amount to notoriety for those adult films in which athletic stamina was more of a requirement than acting ability.

Giacobbe Giusti, Valeria Messalina

Hans Makart’s painting of Charlotte Wolter in Adolf Wilbrandt’s tragedy, Arria und Messalina

Wilbrandt’s Arria und Messalina was specially written for Charlotte Wolter, who was painted in her role by Hans Makart in 1875. There she reclines on a chaise-longue with the city of Rome lit by fire in the background. As well as a preparatory photograph of her dressed as in the painting,^[44] there were also posed cabinet photos of her in a plainer dress.^[45]Other stars were involved when the play went on tour in various translations. Lilla Bulyovszkyné (1833-1909) starred in the Hungarian production in 1878^[46] and Irma Temesváryné-Farkas in that of 1883; ^[47] Louise Fahlman (1856-1918) played in the 1887 Stockholm production,^[48] Marie Pospíšilová (1862-1943) in the 1895 Czech production.^[49]

In Italy, Cossa’s drama was acted with Virginia Marini in the role of Messalina.^[50]

Both the Parisian leads in Danesi’s ballet were photographed by Nadar: Elena Cornalba in 1885^[51] and Mlle Jaeger later.^[52] During its 1898 production in Turin, Anita Grassi was the lead.^[53]

Meyriane Héglon starred in the Monte Carlo and subsequent London productions of De Lara’s Messaline,^[54] while Emma Calvé starred in the 1902 Paris production,^[55][56] where she was succeeded by Cécile Thévenet.^[57] Others who sang in the role were Maria Nencioni in 1903, ^[58] Jeanne Dhasty in the Nancy (1903) and Algiers (1907) productions,^[59] Charlotte Wyns (1868-c.1917) in the 1904 Aix les Bains production,^[60] and Claire Croiza, who made her debut in the 1905 productions in Nancy and Lille.^[61]

Films

After a slow start in the first half of the 20th century, the momentum of films about or featuring Messalina increased with censorship’s decline. The following starred in her part:

• Madeleine Roch (1883-1930) in the French silent film Messaline (1910)^[62][63]
• Maria Caserini in the 1910 Italian silent film The Love of an Empress (Messalina).
• Rina De Liguoro in the 1923 Italian silent film Messalina, alternatively titled The Fall of an Empress.^[64] A cut version with dubbed dialogue was released in 1935.
• Merle Oberon in the 1937 uncompleted film of I, Claudius.^[65]
• María Félix in the 1951 Italian film Messalina. This also carried the titles Empress of Rome^[66] and The Affairs of Messalina.^[67]
• Ludmilla Dudarova during a flashback in Nerone e Messalina (Italy, 1953), which had the English title Nero and the Burning of Rome.^[68]
• Susan Hayward in the 1954 Biblical epic Demetrius and the Gladiators,^[69] a completely fictionalized interpretation in which a reformed Messalina bids a penitential public farewell to her Christian gladiator lover, Demetrius, and takes her place on the throne next to her husband, the new emperor Claudius.^[70]
• Belinda Lee in the 1960 film Messalina, venere imperatrice.^[71]
• Lisa Gastoni in the Italian L’ultimo gladiatore, also titled Messalina vs. the Son of Hercules (1963).^[72]
• Nicola Pagett in the 1968 ITV television series The Caesars.^[73]The series is noted for its historically accurate depiction of Roman history and personages, including a less sensationalised portrayal of Messalina.
• Sheila White in the 1976 BBC serial I, Claudius.^[74]
• Anneka Di Lorenzo in the 1979 film Caligula, and the 1977 comedy Messalina, Messalina, which used many of the same set pieces as the earlier-filmed, but later released Caligula.^[75] An alternative European title for the 1977 production was Messalina, Empress and Whore.^[76][77]
• Betty Roland in the Franco-Italian Caligula and Messalina (1981).^[78]
• Raquel Evans in the 1982 Spanish comedy Bacanales Romanas, released in English as My Nights with Messalina.^[79]
• Jennifer O’Neill in the 1985 TV series AD.^[80]
• Kelly Trump in the 1996 adult film Messalina (Les Orgies de Messaline).^[81]
• Sonia Aquino in the 2004 TV movie Imperium: Nero.^[82]
• Tabea Tarbiat in the 2014 film Nymphomaniac Volume II.

Novels

An early fiction concerning the Empress, La Messalina by Francesco Pona, appeared in Venice in 1633. This managed to combine a high degree of eroticism with a demonstration of how private behavior has a profound effect on public affairs. Nevertheless, a passage such as

Messalina tossing in the turbulence of her thoughts did not sleep at night; and if she did sleep, Morpheus slept at her side, prompting stirrings in her, robing and disrobing a thousand images that her sexual fantasies during the day had suggested

helps explain how the novel was at once among the most popular, and the most frequently banned, books of the century, despite its moral pretensions.^[83]

Much the same point about the catastrophic effect of sexuality was made by Gregorio Leti‘s political pamphlet, The amours of Messalina, late queen of Albion, in which are briefly couch’d secrets of the imposture of the Cambrion prince, the Gothick league, and other court intrigues of the four last years reign, not yet made publick (1689).^[84] This was yet another satire on a Stuart Queen, Mary of Modena in this case, camouflaged behind the character of Messalina.

A 16th-century cameo of Messalina and her children

A very early treatment in English of Messalina’s liaison with Gaius Silius and her subsequent death appeared in the fictionalised story included in the American author Edward Maturin‘s Sejanus And Other Roman Tales (1839).^[85] But the part she plays in Robert Graves‘ novels, I, Claudius and Claudius the God (1934–35), is better known. In it she is portrayed as a teenager at the time of her marriage but credited with all the actions mentioned in the ancient sources. An attempt to create a film based on them in 1937 failed,^[86] but they were adapted into a very successful TV series in 1976.

In 19th century France, the story of Messalina was subject to literary transformation. It underlaid La femme de Claude (Claudius’ wife, 1873), the novel by Alexandre Dumas fils, where the hero is Claude Ruper, an embodiment of the French patriotic conscience after the country’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. In contrast, his wife Césarine (the female Caesar) is a creature totally corrupt at all levels, who sells her husband’s work to the enemy and is eventually shot by him.^[87] Alfred Jarry‘s ‘pataphysical’ novel Messaline of 1901 (titled The Garden of Priapus in Louis Colman’s English translation), though lightly based on the historical account, is chiefly the product of the author’s fanciful and extravagant imagination and has been compared with the treatment of Classical themes by Art Nouveau artists.^[88]

In fact, Jarry’s was just one of five contemporary French novels treating Messalina in a typically fin de siècle manner. They also included Prosper Castanier’s L’Orgie Romaine (Roman Orgy, 1897), Nonce Casanova’s Messaline, roman de la Rome impériale (Mesalina, a novel of imperial Rome, 1902) and Louis Dumont’s La Chimère, Pages de la Décadence (The Chimaera, Decadent Pages, 1902). However, the most successful and inventive stylistically was Felicien Champsaur‘s novel L’Orgie Latine (1903) ^[89]Although Messalina is referenced throughout its episodic coverage of degenerate times, she features particularly in the third section, “The Naked Empress” (L’impératice nue), dealing with her activities in the brothel, and the sixth, “Messalina’s End”, beginning with her wedding to Silius and ending with her enforced death.^[90]

Sensational fictional treatments have persisted, as in Vivian Crockett’s Messalina, the wickedest woman in Rome (1924), Marise Querlin’s Messaline, impératrice du feu (The fiery empress, 1955), Jack Oleck‘s Messalina: a novel of imperial Rome (1959) and Siegfried Obermeier’s Messalina, die lasterhafte Kaiserin (The empress without principle, 2002). Oleck’s novel went through many editions and was later joined by Kevin Matthews’ The Pagan Empress (1964). Both have since been included under the genre « toga porn ».^[91] They are rivalled by Italian and French adult comics, sometimes of epic proportions, such as the 59 episodes devoted to Messalina in the Italian Venus of Rome series (1967-74). More recent examples include Jean-Yves Mitton’s four-part series in France (2011-13) and Dominici Arturo’s Messaline in the Succubi series (2014), in which « a woman without taboos or scruples throws light on pitiless ancient Rome ».^[92]

Contrasting views have lately been provided by two French biographies. Jacqueline Dauxois gives the traditional picture in her lurid biography in Pygmalion’s Legendary Queens series (2013),^[93] while the historian Jean-Noël Castorio (b.1971) seeks to uncover the true facts of the woman behind Juvenal’s 6th satire in his revisionist Messaline, la putain impériale (The imperial whore, 2015).^[94]

Sources

• Cassius Dio, Roman History, LX. 14–18, 27–31
• Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX. 8; The Wars of the Jews II. 12
• Juvenal, Satires 6, 10, 14
• Pliny the Elder, Natural History 10
• Plutarch, Lives
• Seneca the Younger, Apocolocyntosis divi Claudii; Octavia, 257–261
• Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Claudius 17, 26, 27, 29, 36, 37, 39; Nero 6; Vitellius 2
• Tacitus, Annals, XI. 1, 2, 12, 26–38
• Sextus Aurelius Victor, epitome of Book of Caesars, 4

References

• (in French) Minaud, Gérard, Les vies de 12 femmes d’empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés , Paris, L’Harmattan, 2012, ch. 2, La vie de Messaline, femme de Claude, p. 39-64.
• Tatum, W. Jeffrey; The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (The University of North Carolina Press, 1999).
• Mudd, Mary; I, Livia: The Counterfeit Criminal. the Story of a Much Maligned Woman (Trafford Publishing, 2012).
• Barrett, Anthony A. (1996). Agrippina: Sex, Power and Politics in the Early Roman Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press.
• Klebs, E. (1897–1898). H. Dessau, P. Von Rohden, ed. Prosopographia Imperii Romani. Berlin.
• Levick, Barbara (1990). Claudius. New Haven: Yale University Press.
• Dina Sahyouni,  » Le pouvoir critique des modèles féminins dans les Mémoires secrets : le cas de Messaline « , in Le règne de la critique. L’imaginaire culturel des mémoires secrets, sous la direction de Christophe Cave, Paris, Honoré Champion, 2010, p. 151–160.

Notes

1. Jump up^ Prosopographia Imperii Romani V 161
2. Jump up^ Prosopographia Imperii Romani V 88
3. Jump up^ Suetonius, Vita Claudii, 26.29
4. Jump up^ K.A.Hosack, « Can One Believe the Ancient Sources That Describe Messalina? », Constructing the Past12.1, 2011]
5. Jump up^ Harriet I. Flower, The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace and Oblivion in Roman Political Culture, University of North Carolina 2011, pp 182-9
6. Jump up^ Thomas A. J. McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law in Ancient Rome, Oxford University 1998 p 170
7. Jump up^ Online translation, X ch.83
8. Jump up^ Poetry in translation, VI.114-135
9. Jump up^ Translation by A. S. Kline, lines 329-336
10. Jump up^ Peter Maxwell Cryle, The Telling of the Act: Sexuality As Narrative in Eighteenth- And Nineteenth-Century France, University of Delaware 2001. Messalina chapter, p. 281ff
11. Jump up^ ‘Jack Oleck’s Messalina is a full-on romp in the salacious world of Imperial Rome’; My nights with Messalina is a stupid little romp, and quite good at it too’
12. Jump up^ Wiki-Commons
13. Jump up^ Getty Museum
14. Jump up^ Fine Art Library
15. Jump up^ Wiki-Commons
16. Jump up^ Wiki-Commons
17. Jump up^ Wiki-Commons
18. Jump up^ Wiki-Commons
19. Jump up^ European art portal
20. Jump up^ [1]
21. Jump up^ Wiki-Commons
22. Jump up^ Wiki-Commons
23. Jump up^ Museum of Art
24. Jump up^ Art Value
25. Jump up^ Tate Art Gallery
26. Jump up^ Wikipaintings
27. Jump up^ Wiki-Commons
28. Jump up^ Wiki-Commons
29. Jump up^ Online text
30. Jump up^ Lisa Hopkins, The Cultural Uses of the Caesars on the English Renaissance Stage, 2008 pp 135-7
31. Jump up^ Wendy Heller, Emblems of Eloquence: Opera and Women’s Voices in Seventeenth-Century Venice, University of California 2003, pp.277-97
32. Jump up^ Google Books
33. Jump up^ Google Books
34. Jump up^ Online Archive
35. Jump up^ Collecting Delaware Books
36. Jump up^ Sarah Gutsche-Miller, Pantomime-Ballet on the Music-Hall Stage, McGill University thesis, 2010,p.36
37. Jump up^ Magazine illustration
38. Jump up^ Poster
39. Jump up^ Wikipaintings
40. Jump up^ Wikipaintings
41. Jump up^ British Theatre Guide
42. Jump up^ p.342
43. Jump up^ Thomas F. Connolly, Genus Envy: Nationalities, Identities, and the Performing Body of Work, Cambria Press 2010, pp.102-3
44. Jump up^ [2]
45. Jump up^ Austrian picture archive
46. Jump up^ Poster
47. Jump up^ Poster
48. Jump up^ photographic portraits on Wiki-Commons and Alamy
49. Jump up^ Cabinet photograph
50. Jump up^ Photo
51. Jump up^ Gallica
52. Jump up^ Gallica
53. Jump up^ Programme
54. Jump up^ Postcard
55. Jump up^ Archived score.
56. Jump up^ Photo on Pinterest
57. Jump up^ Photographs
58. Jump up^ Postcard,
59. Jump up^ Postcard
60. Jump up^ “Charlotte Wyns” at Art Lyrique
61. Jump up^ Photograph on Wiki-Commons
62. Jump up^ Frédéric Zarch, Catalogue des films projetés à Saint-Étienne avant la première guerre mondiale, Université de Saint-Etienne, 2000, p.209
63. Jump up^ Poster
64. Jump up^ Poster
65. Jump up^ Flickr
66. Jump up^ Film poster
67. Jump up^ Poster
68. Jump up^ Archivo Storico del Cinema
69. Jump up^ Poster with Hayward in the foreground
70. Jump up^ Martin M. Winkler, Cinema and Classical Texts: Apollo’s New Light, Cambridge University 2009, p.232
71. Jump up^ The German poster
72. Jump up^ Poster and stills
73. Jump up^ Publicity poster
74. Jump up^ Still from the brothel scene
75. Jump up^ IMDB – Messalina, Empress of Rome (1977)
76. Jump up^ Gary Allen Smith, Epic Films: Casts, Credits and Commentary, McFardland 2004, p.168
77. Jump up^ Poster
78. Jump up^ Poster on Pinterest
79. Jump up^ Poster
80. Jump up^ TV photo
81. Jump up^ Poster on film database
82. Jump up^ Publicity photo
83. Jump up^ Wendy Heller, Emblems of Eloquence: Opera and Women’s Voices in Seventeenth-Century Venice, University of California 2003, pp.273-5
84. Jump up^ Google Books
85. Jump up^ pp.82-110
86. Jump up^ William Hawes, Caligula and the Fight for Artistic Freedom, Jefferson NC 2009, pp.14-16
87. Jump up^ Epelorient
88. Jump up^ The Nineteenth Century in Two Parts, Syracuse University 1994 p.1214
89. Jump up^ Archived online; there has also been a recent translation as The Latin Orgy.
90. Jump up^ Marie-France David-de Palacio, Reviviscences romaines: la latinité au miroir de l’esprit fin-de-siècle, Peter Lang, 2005, p.232
91. Jump up^ Joanne Renaud, in Astonishing Adventures Magazine 5, 2009, pp.52-5
92. Jump up^ Comics & Antiquité
93. Jump up^ Messaline
94. Jump up^ Histoire pour tous

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Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

Crucifix du Louvre (extrait)

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

Crucifix de Pérouse

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

Saint François prêchant aux oiseaux, Assise.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

 

Master of Saint Francis, Double-sided Polyptych. Deposition. c.1272. National Gallery of Umbria,

 

Crucifix du Louvre (extrait)

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

Crucifix de Pérouse

Le Maestro di San Francesco est le nom de convention d’un peintre italien de la fin du xiii^e siècle, un maître anonyme, dont les œuvres datent de la période 1260–1280, nommé ainsi par l’historien de l’art Henry Thoded’après un panneau des Anges de la basilique Sainte-Marie-des-Anges d’Assise, en Ombrie.

C’est un peintre de fresques, de tableaux, de crucifix (peut-être de vitraux) qui a œuvré dans la région de Pérouse.

Œuvres attribuées

Plusieurs œuvres lui sont attribuées par leur caractère homogène et leur style caractéristique ; elles concernent la dernière phase de la décoration de l’église inférieure de la basilique Saint-François d’Assise (scènes de la Passion du Christ sur le mur de droite et scènes de la Vie de saint François, sur le mur de gauche) :

• Le Christ sur la Croix,
• Déposition du Christ,
• Lamentation sur le Christ mort,
• Saint François prêchant aux oiseaux,
• On lui attribue également quatre crucifix peintsà tabelloni significatifs du Christus dolens :
  • un premier à Arezzo,
  • un deuxième conservé au musée du Louvre,
  • un troisième, qui se trouve à la galerie nationale de l’Ombrie à Pérouse,
  • le dernier est à la National Gallery de Londres.
• Saint Paul trônant, anges, saints et Annonciation, v. 1360, Collection Vittorio Cini, Venise¹.

• 

  Saint Jacques le Mineur, extrait d’un panneau de polyptyque, Washington.

• 

  Lamentation sur le Christ mort, Assise.

• 

  Saint François prêchant aux oiseaux, Assise.

Notes et références

1. ↑Giovanna Nepi Sciré, La Peinture dans les Musées de Venise, Editions Place des Victoires, 2008(ISBN978-2-8099-0019-4), p. 94

Master of Saint Francis

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

Detail of a Crucifix by the Master of Saint Francis (c.1275-80)
Egg tempera on wood
National Gallery, London

The Master of Saint Francis (in Italian Maestro di S. Francesco) was an anonymous Italian painter, perhaps of Pisan origin^[1] though probably trained in Umbria,^[2] working between 1250–1280. His work embodies an important aspect of the contact between Italian and Byzantine art of this period.

Works

A painter of frescoes and panels and, perhaps, designer of stained glass in the district around Perugia, the Master of Saint Francis was given this name by art historian Henry Thode in 1885 and is based on the title of a panel painting, St. Francis with Angels, found in the Basilica of Saint Mary of the Angels in Assisi.^[3]

Much of the work attributed to him was part of the early phase in the decoration of Basilica of San Francesco of Assisi, including the fresco cycle in the nave of the Lower Church with five scenes from the Passion of Christ on the right wall and five scenes from the Life of St Francis on the left. (These were damaged by the later opening of the side chapels.) In spite of the obvious participation of assistants, the entire cycle seems to have been planned by a single artist and can be considered as homogeneous and characteristic of his style. The cycle was largely based on the later works of Giunta Pisano but also shows the influence of such Umbrian artists as Rainaldetto di Ranuccio, Simeone and Machilone and of contemporary manuscript illumination, for example the Gospel Book of Giovanni da Gaibena (Padua, Bib. Capitolare). Designs for some of the stained glass windows in the Upper Church are also attributed to him.^[4] In addition, he created a large panel painting (now divided into numerous pieces) for the church of Saint Francis al Prato in Perugia,^[4] and several painted crosses.

Within his works Byzantine elements, particularly of iconography, are found with western forms of ornamentation and a use of colour that is far from Byzantine.

Gallery of selected works

Panel painting

• 

  Saint Francis and Angels

• 

  Deposition

• 

  Saint Francis with the stigmata

• 

  The prophet Isaiah

• 

  Saint John the Evangelist

Crucifixes

• 

  The Perugia Crucifix.

• 

Stained glass

• 
• 
• 
• 

Frescoes

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

• 
• 
• 

References

1. Jump up^ Martin, Frank. « The St. Francis Master in the Upper Church of S. Francesco/Assisi: Some Considerations regarding His Origins ». Gesta. 35 (2): 177–191. doi:10.2307/767181.
2. Jump up^ « Master of Saint Francis » (PDF). National Gallery of Art Online Editions. Washington, DC. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
3. Jump up^ Pope-Hennessy, John (1987-01-01). The Robert Lehman Collection: Vol. 1, Italian Paintings. Metropolitan Museum of Art (NY). p. 78. ISBN9780870994791.
4. ^ Jump up to:^ab Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York N.Y.) (1999-01-01). Splendori Di Assisi. Capolavori Dal Museo Della Basilica Di San Francesco. Catalogo Della Mostra (1998-99). Ediz. Inglese. Electa. pp. 34–36. ISBN9788843569328.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Saint_Francis

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com