Giacobbe Giusti, JACOPO di CIONE: Crucifixion – National Gallery, London

Giacobbe Giusti, JACOPO di CIONE: Crucifixion – National Gallery, London

Giacobbe Giusti, JACOPO di CIONE: Crucifixion – National Gallery, London

Retable de la Crucifixion du Palais de l’Art des Juges et Notaires de Florence (conservé aujourd’hui à la National Gallery de Londres.

Naissance	1325 Florence
Décès	1399 Florence
Activités	Peintre, architecte
Lieu de travail	Florence(1365–1398)
Fratrie	Andrea Orcagna

Giacobbe Giusti, JACOPO di CIONE

Strage degli Innocenti de l’église Santa Maria Maggiore (Florence), réalisée en collaboration avec Mariotto di Nardo

Jacopo di Cione(Florence, 1320/1330 –1398/1400), est un peintreflorentin du xiv^e siècle.

Biographie

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Jacopo di Cione est le cadet de quatre célèbres frères florentins : Andrea Orcagna et les peintres et architectes Benci, Nardo et Matteo di Cione.

Inscrit à l’Arte dei Medici e Speziali en 1369, il devient le podestat de la corporation en 1384, en 1387 et en 1392.

Œuvres

• Giorgio Vasari le cite et décrit sa biographie dans Le Vite
• Le retable de San Pier Maggiore Le Couronnement de la Vierge entourée de saints en adoration (panneau central 206 × 114 cm), de 1370-1371 à la National Gallery de Londres, lui est attribué. Il s’agit probablement d’un travail à trois mains avec Niccolo di Pietro Gerini. Son frère Nardo et son élève Niccolò di Tommaso participèrent au dessin préparatoire de ce polyptyque. Il fut démembré au xviii^e siècle¹.
• Les fresques du palais de la chapelle du Palais de l’Art des Juges et Notaires à Florence (travaux de son atelier).
• le retable de la Crucifixion (it) de la chapelle du Palais de l’Art des Juges et Notaires, conservé à la National Gallery.
• La peinture de la Vierge et saint Matthieu, à l’église d’Orsanmichele, terminant le travail commencé par son frère Andrea Orcagna, disparu.
• Le Couronnement de la Vierge, avec les prophètes et les saints, Galleria dell’Accademia de Florence. Il provient de l’Hôtel de la Monnaie².

Notes et références

1. ↑ Erika Langmuir, National Gallery : Le Guide, Flammarion, 1997(ISBN 2-08-012451-X), p. 53
2. ↑ Mina Gregori, Le Musée des Offices et le Palais Pitti : La Peinture à Florence, Editions Place des Victoires, 2000 (ISBN 2-84459-006-3), p. 38

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacopo_di_Cione

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Famous « bikini girls » mosaic (found by archeological excavation of the ancient Roman villa near Piazza Armerina in Sicily), showing women exercising, running, or receiving the palm of victory and crown (for winning an athletic competition). Bikini Mosaic Villa Romana del Casale

Römische Mädchen beim Sport

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Vestiges des thermes de Dioclétien à Rome.

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Mosaic bath sign from Sabratha, Libya, showing bathing sandals, three strigils, and the slogan SALVOM LAVISSE, « A bath is good for you »^[2]

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Four dans une cour de chauffe des thermes de Chassenon.

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Reconstitution 3D de la salle des piscines des Thermes de Chassenon.

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Ruins of the enormous Baths of Caracalla, completed in 216 on a 25 hectare (33 acre) site

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Maquette des thermes de Barbara, Trèves.

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Roman thermal baths, Aeclanum, Mirabella Eclano

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Roman public baths in Bath, England. The entire structure above the level of the pillar bases is a later reconstruction.

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Thermae Maiores, Aquincum, Budapest

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Mise au jour de l’apodyterium des thermes d’Augusta Bilbilis.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Reconstitution des thermes privés de la villa romaine de Borg, Allemagne.

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Roman public baths in Bath, England. The entire structure above the level of the pillar bases is a later reconstruction.

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Thermae Maiores, Aquincum, Budapest

In ancient Rome, thermae(from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot ») and balneae(from Greek βαλανεῖον balaneion) were facilities for bathing. Thermaeusually refers to the large imperial bath complexes, while balneae were smaller-scale facilities, public or private, that existed in great numbers throughout Rome.^[1]

Most Roman cities had at least one, if not many, such buildings, which were centres not only for bathing, but socializing, and reading as well. Roman bath-houses were also provided for private villas, town houses, and forts. They were supplied with water from an adjacent river or stream, or more normally, by an aqueduct. The water would be heated by a log fire before being channelled into the hot bathing rooms. The design of baths is discussed by Vitruvius in De Architectura.

Terminology

Giacobbe Giusti, Thermae (from Greek θερμός thermos, « hot »)

Mosaic bath sign from Sabratha, Libya, showing bathing sandals, three strigils, and the slogan SALVOM LAVISSE, « A bath is good for you »^[2]

Thermae, balneae, balineae, balneum and balineum may all be translated as « bath » or « baths », though Latin sources distinguish among these terms.

Balneum or balineum, derived from the Greekβαλανεῖον^[3][4] signifies, in its primary sense, a bath or bathing-vessel, such as most persons of any consequence among the Romans possessed in their own houses,^[5]and hence the chamber which contained the bath,^[6] which is also the proper translation of the word balnearium. The diminutive balneolum is adopted by Seneca^[7] to designate the bathroom of Scipio, in the villa at Liternum, and is expressly used to characterize the modesty of republican manners as compared with the luxury of his own times. But when the baths of private individuals became more sumptuous, and comprised many rooms, instead of the one small chamber described by Seneca, the plural balnea or balinea was adopted, which still, in correct language, had reference only to the baths of private persons. Thus Cicero terms the baths at the villa of his brother Quintus^[8]balnearia.

Balneae and balineae, which according to Varro^[9] have no singular number, were the public baths. But this accuracy of diction is neglected by many of the subsequent writers, and particularly by the poets, amongst whom balnea is not uncommonly used in the plural number to signify the public baths, since the word balneae could not be introduced in a hexameter verse. Pliny also, in the same sentence, makes use of the neuter plural balnea for public, and of balneum for a private bath.^[10]

Thermae (Greek: Θέρμαι, Thermai, « hot springs, hot baths »,^[11] from the Greek adjective thermos, « hot ») meant properly warm springs, or baths of warm water; but came to be applied to those magnificent edifices which grew up under the empire, in place of the simple balneae of the republic, and which comprised within their range of buildings all the appurtenances belonging to the Greek gymnasia, as well as a regular establishment appropriated for bathing.^[12] Writers, however, use these terms without distinction. Thus the baths erected by Claudius Etruscus, the freedman of the Emperor Claudius, are styled by Statius^[13] balnea, and by Martial^[14] Etrusci thermulae. In an epigram by Martial^[15]—subice balneum thermis—the terms are not applied to the whole building, but to two different chambers in the same edifice.

Building layout

Plan of the Old Baths at Pompeii

A public bath was built around three principal rooms: the caldarium(hot bath), the tepidarium(warm bath) and the frigidarium(cold bath). Some thermaealso featured steam baths: the sudatorium, a moist steam bath, and the laconicum, a dry hot room much like a modern sauna.

By way of illustration, this article will describe the layout of Pompeii‘s Old Baths adjoining the forum, which are among some of the best-preserved Roman baths. The references are to the floor plan pictured to the right.^[16]

The whole building comprises a double set of baths, one for men and the other for women. It has six different entrances from the street, one of which (b) gives admission to the smaller women’s set only. Five other entrances lead to the men’s department, of which two (c and c2), communicate directly with the furnaces, and the other three (a3, a2, a) with the bathing apartments.

Atrium

Passing through the principal entrance, a (barely visible, right side, one third of the total length from above), which is removed from the street by a narrow footway surrounding the building and after descending three steps, the bather finds a small chamber on his left (x) with a water closet (latrina), and proceeds into a covered portico (g, g), which ran round three sides of an open court (atrium, A). These together formed the vestibule of the baths (vestibulum balnearum),^[17]in which the servants waited.

Use of the atrium

This atrium was the exercise ground for the young men, or perhaps served as a promenade for visitors to the baths. Within this court the keeper of the baths (balneator), who exacted the quadrans paid by each visitor, was also stationed. The room f, which runs back from the portico, might have been appropriated to him; but most probably it was an oecus or exedra, for the convenience of the better classes while awaiting the return of their acquaintances from the interior. In this court, advertisements for the theatre, or other announcements of general interest, were posted up, one of which, announcing a gladiatorial show, still remains. At the sides of the entrance were seats (scholae).

Apodyterium and frigidarium

 Apodyterium and Frigidarium

A passage (c) leads into the apodyterium (B), a room for undressing in which all visitors must have met before entering the baths proper. Here, the bathers removed their clothing, which was taken in charge by slaves known as capsarii, notorious in ancient times for their dishonesty.^[18] The apodyterium was a spacious chamber, with stone seats along three sides of the wall (h). Holes are still visible on the walls, and probably mark the places where the pegs for the bathers’ clothes were set. The chamber was lighted by a glass window, and had six doors. One of these led to the tepidarium (D) and another to the frigidarium (C), with its cold plunge-bath (referred to as loutron, natatio, natatorium, piscina, baptisterium or puteus; the terms « natatio » and « natatorium » suggest that some of those baths were also swimming pools). The bath in this chamber is of white marble, surrounded by two marble steps.

The 1898 edition of Harper’s Dictionary of Classical Antiquitiesprovided illustrations envisioning the rooms of the Forum Baths at Pompeii:

• 

  Apodyterium

• 

  Frigidarium

• 

  Tepidarium

Tepidarium

 Tepidarium

From the apodyterium the bather who wished to go through the warm bath and sweating process entered the tepidarium (D). It did not contain water either at Pompeii or at the baths of Hippias, but was merely heated with warm air of an agreeable temperature, in order to prepare the body for the great heat of the vapour and warm baths, and, upon returning, to prevent a too-sudden transition to the open air. In the baths at Pompeii this chamber also served as an apodyterium for those who took the warm bath. The walls feature a number of separate compartments or recesses for receiving the garments when taken off. The compartments are divided from each other by figures of the kind called Atlantes or Telamones, which project from the walls and support a rich cornice above them in a wide arch.

Three bronze benches were also found in the room, which was heated as well by its contiguity to the hypocaust of the adjoining chamber, as by a brazier of bronze (foculus), in which the charcoal ashes were still remaining when the excavation was made. Sitting and perspiring beside such a brazier was called ad flammam sudare.^[19]

The caldarium of the Old Baths

The tepidarium is generally the most highly ornamented room in baths. It was merely a room to sit in and be anointed in. In the Forum Baths at Pompeii the floor is mosaic, the arched ceiling adorned with stucco and painting on a coloured ground, the walls red.

Anointing was performed by slaves called unctores and aliptae. It sometimes took place before going to the hot bath, and sometimes after the cold bath, before putting on the clothes, in order to check the perspiration.^[20] Some baths had a special room (destrictarium or unctorium) for this purpose.

Caldarium

 Caldarium

From the tepidarium a door opened into the caldarium (E), whose mosaic floor was directly above the furnace or hypocaust. Its walls also were hollow, behind the decorated plaster one part of the wall was made from interconnected hollow bricks called tubuli lateraci, forming a great flue filled with heated air. At one end was a round basin (labrum), and at the other a quadrangular bathingplace (puelos, alveus, solium, calida piscina), approached from the platform (schola) by steps. The labrum held cold water, for pouring upon the bather’s head before he left the room. These basins are of marble in the Forum Baths, but we hear of alvei of solid silver.^[21] Because of the great heat of the room, the caldarium was but slightly ornamented.

Laconicum[edit]

Laconicum

The Old Baths have no laconicum, which was a chamber still hotter than the caldarium, and used simply as a sweating-room, having no bath. It was said to have been introduced at Rome by Agrippa^[22] and was also called sudatorium and assa.

Service areas

A three-tiered water boiler (miliarium)

The apodyterium has a passage (q) communicating with the mouth of the furnace (i), called praefurnium or propigneum; and, passing down that passage, we reach the chamber M, into which the praefurnium projects, and which is entered from the street at c. It was assigned to the fornacatores, or persons in charge of the fires. Of its two staircases, one leads to the roof of the baths, and one to the boilers containing the water.

There were three boilers, one of which (caldarium vas) held the hot water; a second, the tepid (tepidarium); and the third, the cold (frigidarium). The warm water was turned into the warm bath by a pipe through the wall, marked on the plan. Underneath the hot chamber was set the circular furnace d, of more than 7 ft. in diameter, which heated the water and poured hot air into the hollow cells of the hypocaustum. It passed from the furnace under the first and last of the caldrons by two flues, which are marked on the plan. The boiler containing hot water was placed immediately over the furnace; and, as the water was drawn out from there, it was supplied from the next, the tepidarium, which was raised a little higher and stood a little way off from the furnace. It was already considerably heated from its contiguity to the furnace and the hypocaust below it, so that it supplied the deficiency of the former without materially diminishing its temperature; and the vacuum in this last was again filled up from the farthest removed, which contained the cold water received directly from the square reservoir seen behind them. The boilers themselves no longer remain, but the impressions which they have left in the mortar in which they were imbedded are clearly visible, and enable us to determine their respective positions and dimensions. Such coppers or boilers appear to have been called miliaria, from their similarity of shape to a milestone.^[23]

Behind the boilers, another corridor leads into the court or atrium (K) appropriated to the servants of the bath.

Women’s bath

The adjoining, smaller set of baths were assigned to the women. The entrance is by the door b, which conducts into a small vestibule (m) and from there into the apodyterium (H), which, like the one in the men’s bath, has a seat (pulvinus, gradus) on either side built up against the wall. This opens upon a cold bath (J), answering to the natatio of the men’s set, but of much smaller dimensions. There are four steps on the inside to descend into it.

Opposite to the door of entrance into the apodyterium is another doorway which leads to the tepidarium (G), which also communicates with the thermal chamber (F), on one side of which is a warm bath in a square recess, and at the farther extremity the labrum. The floor of this chamber is suspended, and its walls perforated for flues, like the corresponding one in the men’s baths. The tepidarium in the women’s baths had no brazier, but it had a hanging or suspended floor.

Purpose

Ruins of the enormous Baths of Caracalla, completed in 216 on a 25 hectare (33 acre) site

The baths often included, aside from the three main rooms listed above, a palaestra, or outdoor gymnasium where men would engage in various ball games and exercises. There, among other things, weights were lifted and the discus thrown. Men would oil themselves (as soap was still a luxury good and thus not widely available), shower,^{[citation needed]} and remove the excess with a strigil (cf. the well known Apoxyomenus of Lysippusfrom the Vatican Museum). Often wealthy bathers would bring a capsarius, a slave that carried his master’s towels, oils, and strigils to the baths and then watched over them once in the baths, as thieves and pickpockets were known to frequent the baths.

The changing room was known as the apodyterium (from Greek apodyterion from apoduein « to take off »).

Cultural significance

In many ways, baths were the ancient Roman equivalent of community centres. Because the bathing process took so long, conversation was necessary. Many Romans would use the baths as a place to invite their friends to dinner parties, and many politicians would go to the baths to convince fellow Romans to join their causes. The thermae had many attributes in addition to the baths. There were libraries, rooms for poetry readings, and places to buy and eat food. The modern equivalent would be a combination of a library, art gallery, mall, restaurant, gym, and spa.^[24]

One important function of the baths in Roman society was their role as what we would consider a “branch library” today. Many in the general public did not have access to the grand libraries in Rome and so as a cultural institution the baths served as an important resource where the more common citizen could enjoy the luxury of books. The baths of Trajan, of Caracalla, and Diocletian all contained rooms determined to be libraries. They have been identified through the architecture of the baths themselves. The presence of niches in the walls are assumed to have been bookcases and have been shown to be sufficiently deep to have contained ancient scrolls. There is little documentation from the writers of the time that there did exist definitive public libraries maintained in the baths, but records have been found that indicated a slave from the imperial household was labelled “maintenance man of the Greek library of the baths” (vilicus thermarum bybliothecae Graecae). However, this may only indicate that the same slave held two positions in succession: “maintenance man of the baths (vilicus thermarum) and “employee in the Greek library” (a bybliothecae Graecae). The reason for this debate is that, although Julius Caesarand Asinius Pollio advocated for public access to books and that libraries be open to all readers, there is little evidence that public libraries existed in the modern sense as we know it. It is more likely that these reserves were maintained for the wealthy elite.^[25]

Roman thermal baths, Aeclanum, Mirabella Eclano

Baths were a site for important sculpture; among the well-known pieces recovered from the Baths of Caracalla are the Farnese Bull and Farnese Hercules and over life-size early 3rd century patriotic figures somewhat reminiscent of Soviet Socialist realismworks (now in the Museo di Capodimonte, Naples).

The Romans believed that good health came from bathing, eating, massages, and exercise. The baths, therefore, had all of these things in abundance. Since some citizens would be bathing multiple times a week, Roman society was surprisingly clean.^[26]

When asked by a foreigner why he bathed once a day, a Roman emperor is said to have replied « Because I do not have the time to bathe twice a day. »^[27]

Emperors often built baths to gain favour for themselves and to create a lasting monument of their generosity. If a rich Roman wished to gain the favour of the people, he might arrange for a free admission day in his name. For example, a senator hoping to become a Tribune might pay all admission fees at a particular bath on his birthday to become well known to the people of the area.

Location

Virtual historical reconstruction of the Roman Baths in Weißenburg, Germany, using data from laser scantechnology

Baths sprang up all over the empire. Where natural hot springsexisted (as in Bath, England; Băile Herculane, Romania or Aquae Calidae near Burgas and Serdica, Bulgaria) thermae were built around them. Alternatively, a system of hypocausta (from hypo « below » and kaio « to burn ») were utilised to heat the piped water from a furnace (praefurnium).

Remains of Roman public baths

Main article: List of remains of Roman public baths

A number of Roman public baths survive, either as ruins or in varying degrees of conservation. Among the more notable are the Roman baths of Bath and the Ravenglass Roman Bath House in England as well as the Baths of Caracalla, of Diocletian, of Titus, of Trajan in Rome and the baths of Sofia, Serdica and Varna.^[28] Probably the most complete are various public and private baths in Pompeii and nearby sites.

• Roman aqueducts
• Diocletian window (thermal window)
• Greek baths
• History of sanitation
• Hygiene
• Onsen
• Roman architecture
• Roman culture
• Roman engineering
• Roman technology
• Sauna
• Spa town
• Thermae Romae (manga and film)
• Turkish Bath

References

Citations

1. ^ Harry B. Evans (1997). Water Distribution in Ancient Rome: The Evidence of Frontinus. University of Michigan Press. pp. 9, 10. ISBN 0-472-08446-1. Archived from the original on 2018-05-07.
2. ^ More literally, « It is a healthful thing to have bathed. »
3. ^ βαλανεῖον. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
4. ^ Varro, De Ling. Lat. ix. 68, ed. Müller (cited by Rich, 183)
5. ^ Cicero, Ad Atticum ii. 3.
6. ^ Cicero, Ad Fam. xiv. 20 (cited by Rich, 183).
7. ^ Ep. 86 (cited by Rich, 183)
8. ^ Ad Q. Frat. iii. 1. § 1 (cited by Rich, 183)
9. ^ De Ling. Lat. viii. 25, ix. 41, ed. Müller (cited by Rich, 183)
10. ^ Ep. ii. 17. (cited by Rich, 184)
11. ^ Θέρμαι in Liddell and Scott.
12. ^ Juv. Sat. vii. 233 (cited by Rich, 184)
13. ^ Sylv. i. 5. 13 (cited by Rich, 184)
14. ^ vi. 42 (cited by Rich, 184)
15. ^ ix. 76 (cited by Rich, 184)
16. ^ The following is adapted from the 1898 Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities entry edited by Harry Thurston Peck.
17. ^ Pro Cael. 26 (cited by Peck)
18. ^ Dig. xlvii. 17 (cited by Peck)
19. ^ Suet. Aug. 82 (cited by Peck)
20. ^ Galen. x. 49 (cited by Peck)
21. ^ Plin. H. N.xxxiii. 152 (cited by Peck)
22. ^ Dio Cass. liii. 27 (cited by Peck)
23. ^ Pallad. i. 40; v. 8 (cited by Peck)
24. ^ Garrett G. Fagan (2002). Bathing in Public in the Roman World. University of Michigan Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-472-08865-3. Archivedfrom the original on 2018-05-07.
25. ^ Dix, Keith (1994). « ‘Public Libraries’ in Ancient Rome: Ideology and Reality ». Libraries & Culture. 29 (3): 288.
26. ^ Andrews, Cath. “Ancient Roman Baths: Cleanliness and Godliness under one roof.” Explore Italian Culture. Web. 4/22/12.
27. ^ « NOVA Online | Secrets of Lost Empires | Roman Bath | A Day at the Baths ». Pbs.org. Archived from the original on 2012-11-13. Retrieved 2012-08-24.
28. ^ http://www.ancient-bulgaria.com/2008/05/09/the-roman-thermae-in-varna/

Sources]

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Anthony Rich (1890). « Balneae« . In Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed.). London: John Murray. p. 183 et seq.
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Peck, Harry Thurston, ed. (1898). « Balneae ». Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. New York: Harper & Brothers.
• Aaland, Mikkel (May 15, 1998). « Mass Bathing: The Roman BaInea and Thermae ». Cyber-Bohemia. Retrieved August 2, 2006.

Further reading

• Bruun, Christer. 1991. The water supply of ancient Rome: A study of Roman imperial administration. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica.
• DeLaine, Janet. 1997. The Baths of Caracalla: A Study In the Design, Construction, and Economics of Large-Scale Building Projects In Imperial Rome. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
• DeLaine, Janet, and David E Johnston. 1999. Roman Baths and Bathing: Proceedings of the First International Conference On Roman Baths Held At Bath, England, 30 March-4 April 1992.Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
• Fagan, Garrett G. 2001. « The genesis of the Roman public bath: Recent approaches and future directions. » American Journal of Archaeology 105, no. 3: 403–26.
• Manderscheid, Hubertus. 2004. Ancient Baths and Bathing: A Bibliography for the Years 1988-2001. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
• Marvin, M. 1983. « Freestanding sculptures from the Baths of Caracalla. » American Journal of Archaeology 87: 347–84.
• Nielsen, Inge. 1993. Thermae Et Balnea: The Architecture and Cultural History of Roman Public Baths. 2nd ed. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press.
• Ring, James W. 1996. « Windows, baths and solar energy in the Roman Empire. » American Journal of Archaeology 100: 717–24.
• Rotherham, Ian D. 2012. Roman Baths In Britain. Stroud: Amberley.
• Roupas, N. 2012. « Roman bath tiles. » Archaeology 65, no. 2: 12.
• Yegül, Fikret K. 1992. Baths and bathing in classical antiquity. New York: Architectural History Foundation.
• –. 2010. Bathing In the Roman World. New York: Cambridge University Press.

• William Smith Roman Baths (Balneae) from « A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities », pub. John Murray, London, 1875.
• ThermeMuseum (Museum of the Thermae) in Heerlen
• Traianus – Technical investigation of Roman public works
• Roman Bath: a day at the baths An interactive site using the Baths of Caracalla as an example
• Barbara F. McManus Roman baths and bathing
• 3d reconstruction of a Roman baths Limes in Austria
• Roman Baths of Weissenburg Digital Media Archive (creative commons-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas) with data from a City of Weissenburg/CyArk research partnership
• The so-called Victorian Turkish bath was actually a 19th-century version of the Roman bath, and was much closer to it than it was to the Islamic hammam (which is far more humid).
• « The Roman Baths and Solar Heating ». solarhousehistory.com.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermae

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

Giacobbe Giusti, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

Giacobbe Giusti, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

Giacobbe Giusti, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

Giacobbe Giusti, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

Giacobbe Giusti, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

Giacobbe Giusti, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

Giacobbe Giusti, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
The ruins of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus
Location within Turkey
Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap
General information
Status	In Ruins
Type	Mausoleum
Architectural style	Classical
Town or city	Halicarnassus, Achaemenid Empire (modern-day Bodrum, Turkey)
Country	Achaemenid Empire; modern day Turkey)
Coordinates	37°02′16″N 27°25′27″ECoordinates: 37°02′16″N 27°25′27″E
Opened	351 BC
Demolished	1494 AD
Client	Mausolus and Artemisia II of Caria
Owner	Artaxerxes III
Height	Approximately 45 m (148 ft)
Design and construction
Architect	Satyros and Pythius of Priene
Other designers	Leochares, Bryaxis, Scopas and Timotheus

Scale model of a reconstruction of the Mausoleum, one of many widely differing versions, at Miniatürk, Istanbul

The design of the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne was inspired by that of the Mausoleum.

The Masonic House of the Templeof the Scottish Rite, Washington, DC, John Russell Pope, architect, 1911–15, another scholarly version.

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus or Tomb of Mausolus^[a](Ancient Greek: Μαυσωλεῖον τῆς Ἁλικαρνασσοῦ; Turkish: Halikarnas Mozolesi) was a tomb built between 353 and 350 BC at Halicarnassus(present Bodrum, Turkey) for Mausolus, a satrap in the Persian Empire, and his sister-wife Artemisia II of Caria. The structure was designed by the Greek architectsSatyros and Pythius of Priene.^[1][2]

The Mausoleum was approximately 45 m (148 ft) in height, and the four sides were adorned with sculptural reliefs, each created by one of four Greek sculptors—Leochares, Bryaxis, Scopas of Paros and Timotheus.^[3] The finished structure of the mausoleum was considered to be such an aesthetic triumph that Antipater of Sidonidentified it as one of his Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was destroyed by successive earthquakes from the 12th to the 15th century,^[4][5][6] the last surviving of the six destroyed wonders.

The word mausoleum has now come to be used generically for an above-ground tomb.

Conquest

In the 4th century BC, Halicarnassus was the capital of a small regional kingdom within the Achaemenid Empire on the western coast of Asia Minor. In 377 BC, the nominal ruler of the region, Hecatomnus of Milas, died and left the control of the kingdom to his son, Mausolus. Hecatomnus, a local satrapunder the Persians, took control of several of the neighboring cities and districts. After Artemisia and Mausolus, he had several other daughters and sons: Ada (adoptive mother of Alexander the Great), Idrieus and Pixodarus. Mausolus extended its territory as far as the southwest coast of Anatolia. Artemisia and Mausolus ruled from Halicarnassus over the surrounding territory for 24 years. Mausolus, although descended from local people, spoke Greek and admired the Greek way of life and government. He founded many cities of Greek design along the coast and encouraged Greek democratic traditions.^{[citation needed]}

Halicarnassus

Mausolus decided to build a new capital, one as safe from capture as it was magnificent to be seen. He chose the city of Halicarnassus. Artemisia and Mausolus spent huge amounts of tax money to embellish the city. They commissioned statues, temples and buildings of gleaming marble. In 353 BC, Mausolus died, leaving Artemisia to rule alone. As the Persian satrap, and as the Hecatomnid dynast, Mausolus had planned for himself an elaborate tomb. When he died the project was continued by his siblings. The tomb became so famous that Mausolus’s name is now the eponym for all stately tombs, in the word mausoleum.

Artemisia lived for only two years after the death of her husband. The urns with their ashes were placed in the yet unfinished tomb. As a form of sacrifice ritual the bodies of a large number of dead animals were placed on the stairs leading to the tomb, and then the stairs were filled with stones and rubble, sealing the access. According to the historian Pliny the Elder, the craftsmen decided to stay and finish the work after the death of their patron « considering that it was at once a memorial of his own fame and of the sculptor’s art. »

Construction of the Mausoleum

It is likely that Mausolos started to plan the tomb before his death, as part of the building works in Halicarnassus, and that when he died Artemisia continued the building project. Artemisia spared no expense in building the tomb. She sent messengers to Greece to find the most talented artists of the time. These included Scopas, the man who had supervised the rebuilding of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. The famous sculptors were (in the Vitruvius order): Leochares, Bryaxis, Scopas, and Timotheus, as well as hundreds of other craftsmen.

The tomb was erected on a hill overlooking the city. The whole structure sat in an enclosed courtyard. At the center of the courtyard was a stone platform on which the tomb sat. A stairway flanked by stone lions led to the top of the platform, which bore along its outer walls many statues of gods and goddesses. At each corner, stone warriors mounted on horseback guarded the tomb. At the center of the platform, the marble tomb rose as a square tapering block to one-third of the Mausoleum’s 45 m (148 ft) height. This section was covered with bas-reliefs showing action scenes, including the battle of the centaurs with the lapiths and Greeks in combat with the Amazons, a race of warrior women.

On the top of this section of the tomb thirty-six slim columns, ten per side, with each corner sharing one column between two sides; rose for another third of the height. Standing between each pair of columns was a statue. Behind the columns was a solid cella-like block that carried the weight of the tomb’s massive roof. The roof, which comprised most of the final third of the height, was pyramidal. Perched on the top was a quadriga: four massive horses pulling a chariot in which rode images of Mausolus and Artemisia.

History

Timeline and map of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the other Wonders of the Ancient World

This lion is among the few free-standing sculptures from the Mausoleum at the British Museum.

Colossal statue of a man from the north side of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.

Modern historians have pointed out that two years would not be enough time to decorate and build such an extravagant building. Therefore, it is believed that construction was begun by Mausolus before his death or continued by the next leaders.^[7] The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus resembled a temple and the only way to tell the difference was its slightly higher outer walls. The Mausoleum was in the Greek-dominated area of Halicarnassus, which in 353 was controlled by the Achaemenid Empire. According to the Roman architect Vitruvius, it was built by Satyros and Pytheus who wrote a treatise about it; this treatise is now lost.^[7]Pausanias adds that the Romans considered the Mausoleum one of the great wonders of the world and it was for that reason that they called all their magnificent tombs mausolea, after it.^[8]

It is unknown exactly when and how the Mausoleum came to ruin: Eustathius, writing in the 12th century on his commentary of the Iliad says « it was and is a wonder ». Because of this, Fergusson concluded that the building was ruined, probably by an earthquake, between this period and 1402, when the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem arrived and recorded that it was in ruins.^[8]However, Luttrell notes^[9] that at that time the local Greek and Turks had no name for – or legends to account for – the colossal ruins, suggesting a destruction at a much earlier period.

Many of the stones from the ruins were used by the knights to fortify their castle at Bodrum; they also recovered bas-reliefs with which they decorated the new building. Much of the marble was burned into lime. In 1846 Lord Stratford de Redcliffe obtained permission to remove these reliefs from the Bodrum.^[10]

At the original site, all that remained by the 19th century were the foundations and some broken sculptures. This site was originally indicated by Professor Donaldson and was discovered definitively by Charles Newton, after which an expedition was sent by the British government. The expedition lasted three years and ended in the sending of the remaining marbles.^[11] At some point before or after this, grave robbers broke into and destroyed the underground burial chamber, but in 1972 there was still enough of it remaining to determine a layout of the chambers when they were excavated.^[7]

This monument was ranked the seventh wonder of the world by the ancients, not because of its size or strength but because of the beauty of its design and how it was decorated with sculpture or ornaments.^[12]The mausoleum was Halicarnassus’ principal architectural monument, standing in a dominant position on rising ground above the harbor.^[13]

Dimensions and statues

A fragmentary horse from a colossal four-horse chariot group which topped the podium of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.

Much of the information we have gathered about the Mausoleum and its structure has come from the Roman polymath Pliny the Elder. He wrote some basic facts about the architecture and some dimensions. The building was rectangular, not square, surrounded by a colonnade of thirty-six columns. There was a pyramidal superstructure receding in twenty four steps to the summit. On top there were 4 horse chariots of marble. The building was accented with both sculptural friezes and free standing figures. « The free standing figures were arranged on 5 or 6 different levels. »^[7] We are now able to justify that Pliny’s knowledge came from a work written by the architect. It is clear that Pliny did not grasp the design of the mausoleum fully which creates problems in recreating the structure. He does state many facts which help the reader recreate pieces of the puzzle. Other writings by Pausanias, Strabo, and Vitruvius also help us to gather more information about the Mausoleum.^[14]

According to Pliny, the mausoleum was 19 metres (63 ft) north and south, shorter on other fronts, 125 metres (411 ft) perimeter, and 25 cubits (11.4 metres or 37.5 feet) in height. It was surrounded by 36 columns. They called this part the pteron. Above the pteron there was a pyramid on top with 24 steps and equal in height to the lower part. The height of the building was 43 metres (140 ft).^[15] The only other author that gives the dimensions of the Mausoleum is Hyginus a grammarian in the time of Augustus. He describes the monument as built with shining stones, 24 metres (80 ft) high and 410 metres (1,340 ft) in circumference. He likely meant cubits which would match Pliny’s dimensions exactly but this text is largely considered corrupt and is of little importance.^[14] We learn from Vitruvius that Satyrus and Phytheus wrote a description of their work which Pliny likely read. Pliny likely wrote down these dimensions without thinking about the form of the building.^[14]

A number of statues were found slightly larger than life size, either 1.5 metres (5 ft). or 1.60 metres (5.25 ft). in length; these were 20 lion statues. Another important find was the depth on the rock on which the building stood. This rock was excavated to 2.4 or 2.7 metres (8 or 9 ft) deep over an area 33 by 39 metres (107 by 127 ft).^[15] The sculptures on the north were created by Scopas, the ones on the east Bryaxis, on the south Timotheus and on the west Leochares.^[14] The Mausoleum was adorned with many great and beautiful sculptures. Some of these sculptures have been lost or only fragments have been found. Several of the statues’ original placements are only known through historical accounts. The great figures of Mausolus and Artemisia stood in the chariot at the top of the pyramid. The detached equestrian groups are placed at the corners of the sub podium.^[14] The semi-colossal female heads they may have belonged to the acroteria of the two gables which may have represented the six Carian towns incorporated in Halicarnassus.^[16] Work still continues today as groups continue to excavate and research the mausoleum’s art.

Later history of the Mausoleum

The Mausoleum overlooked the city of Halicarnassus for many years. It was untouched when the city fell to Alexander the Great in 334 BC and still undamaged after attacks by pirates in 62 and 58 BC. It stood above the city’s ruins for sixteen centuries. Then a series of earthquakes shattered the columns and sent the bronze chariot crashing to the ground. By 1404 AD only the very base of the Mausoleum was still recognizable.

Bodrum Castle

The Castle from the south-east

The Knights of St John of Rhodes invaded the region and built Bodrum Castle(Castle of Saint Peter). When they decided to fortify it in 1494, they used the stones of the Mausoleum. This is also about when « imaginative reconstructions » of the Mausoleum began to appear.^[17] In 1522 rumours of a Turkish invasion caused the Crusaders to strengthen the castle at Halicarnassus (which was by then known as Bodrum) and much of the remaining portions of the tomb were broken up and used in the castle walls. Sections of polished marble from the tomb can still be seen there today. Suleiman the Magnificent conquered the base of the knights on the island of Rhodes, who then relocated first briefly to Sicily and later permanently to Malta, leaving the Castle and Bodrum to the Ottoman Empire.

During the fortification work, a party of knights entered the base of the monument and discovered the room containing a great coffin. In many histories of the Mausoleum one can find the following story of what happened: the party, deciding it was too late to open it that day, returned the next morning to find the tomb, and any treasure it may have contained, plundered. The bodies of Mausolus and Artemisia were missing too. The small museum building next to the site of the Mausoleum tells the story. Research done by archeologists in the 1960s shows that long before the knights came, grave robbers had dug a tunnel under the grave chamber, stealing its contents. Also the museum states that it is most likely that Mausolus and Artemisia were cremated, so only an urn with their ashes was placed in the grave chamber. This explains why no bodies were found.

Before grinding and burning much of the remaining sculpture of the Mausoleum into lime for plaster, the Knights removed several of the best works and mounted them in the Bodrum castle. There they stayed for three centuries.

Discovery and excavation

An actress performs a play in front of 2 statues from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. Room 21, the British Museum, London

In the 19th century a British consul obtained several of the statues from Bodrum Castle; these now reside in the British Museum. In 1852 the British Museum sent the archaeologist Charles Thomas Newton to search for more remains of the Mausoleum. He had a difficult job. He didn’t know the exact location of the tomb, and the cost of buying up all the small parcels of land in the area to look for it would have been astronomical. Instead Newton studied the accounts of ancient writers like Pliny to obtain the approximate size and location of the memorial, then bought a plot of land in the most likely location. Digging down, Newton explored the surrounding area through tunnels he dug under the surrounding plots. He was able to locate some walls, a staircase, and finally three of the corners of the foundation. With this knowledge, Newton was able to determine which plots of land he needed to buy.

Newton then excavated the site and found sections of the reliefs that decorated the wall of the building and portions of the stepped roof. Also discovered was a broken stone chariot wheel some 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in diameter, which came from the sculpture on the Mausoleum’s roof. Finally, he found the statues of Mausolus and Artemisia that had stood at the pinnacle of the building. In October 1857 Newton carried blocks of marble from this site by HMS Supply and landed them in Malta. These blocks were used for the construction of a new dock in Malta for the Royal Navy. Today this dock is known at Dock No. 1 in Cospicua, but the building blocks are hidden from view, submerged in Dockyard Creek in the Grand Harbour.^[18]

From 1966 to 1977, the Mausoleum was thoroughly researched by Prof. Kristian Jeppesen of Aarhus University, Denmark. He has produced a six-volume monograph, The Maussolleion at Halikarnassos.

The beauty of the Mausoleum was not only in the structure itself, but in the decorations and statues that adorned the outside at different levels on the podium and the roof: statues of people, lions, horses, and other animals in varying scales. The four Greek sculptors who carved the statues: Bryaxis, Leochares, Scopas and Timotheus were each responsible for one side. Because the statues were of people and animals, the Mausoleum holds a special place in history, as it was not dedicated to the gods of Ancient Greece.

Today, the massive castle of the Knights Hospitaller (Knights of St. John) still stands in Bodrum, and the polished stone and marble blocks of the Mausoleum can be spotted built into the walls of the structure. At the site of the Mausoleum, only the foundation remains, and a small museum. Some of the surviving sculptures at the British Museum include fragments of statues and many slabs of the frieze showing the battle between the Greeks and the Amazons. There the images of Mausolus and his queen watch over the few broken remains of the beautiful tomb she built for him.

• 

  Reconstruction of the Amazonomachy can be seen in the left Background-The British Museum Room 21

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  Statue usually identified as Artemisia; Reconstruction of the Amazonomachy can be seen in the left Background-The British Museum Room 21

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  Slab from the Amazonomachy believed to show Herculeas grabbing the Hair of the Amazon Queen Hippolyta

• Giacobbe Giusti, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

  
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Influence on modern architecture

Modern buildings whose designs were based upon or influenced by interpretations of the design of the Mausoleum of Mausolus include PNC Tower in Cincinnati, the Civil Courts Building in St. Louis; the National Newark Building in Newark, New Jersey; Grant’s Tomb and 26 Broadway in New York City; Los Angeles City Hall; the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne; the spire of St. George’s Church, Bloomsbury in London; the Indiana War Memorial (and in turn Salesforce Tower) in Indianapolis,^[19][20] the House of the Temple in Washington D.C., the National Diet in Tokyo, and the Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall in Pittsburgh.^[21]

• Milas – Site of the tomb of Hecatomnus, who was the father of Mausolus. It is also the site of the Gümüşkesen, a small-scale Roman-era copy of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.

Notes

1. Jump up^ « Mausoleion » meant « [building] dedicated to Mausolus« ; thus, Mausoleum of Mausolus is a tautology.

References

1. Jump up^ Kostof, Spiro (1985). A History of Architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 9. ISBN0-19-503473-2.
2. Jump up^ Gloag, John (1969) [1958]. Guide to Western Architecture (Revised ed.). The Hamlyn Publishing Group. p. 362.
3. Jump up^ Smith, William (1870). « Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, page 744 ». Retrieved 21 September 2006.
4. Jump up^ « Mausoleum of Halicarnassus ». Archived from the original on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 5 February 2014.
5. Jump up^ « The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus ». Retrieved 5 February 2014.
6. Jump up^ « The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus ». Retrieved 5 February 2014.
7. ^ Jump up to:^abcd Colvin, Howard (1991). « Architecture and the after-life. » Yale University, pp 30–31. New Haven Press.
8. ^ Jump up to:^ab Fergusson, p10.
9. Jump up^ A. Luttrell, The later history of the Maussolleion and its utilization in the Hospitaller castle at Bodrum. In Kristian Jeppesen, et al. The Maussolleion at Halikarnassos. 1986.
10. Jump up^ Fergusson, p6.
11. Jump up^ Fergusson, p7.
12. Jump up^ Fergusson, p5.
13. Jump up^ « Architecture and the after-life. » Yale University, pp3 0–31. New Haven Press.
14. ^ Jump up to:^abcde Fergusson.
15. ^ Jump up to:^ab Fergusson, p9.
16. Jump up^ « [A guide to the] mausoleum room. » (1886). the trustees, London England
17. Jump up^ « The Maussolleion ». SDU (in Danish). Retrieved 8 December 2017.
18. Jump up^ Busuttil, Cynthia (26 July 2009). « Dock 1 made from ancient ruins? ». The Times. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
19. Jump up^ « Indiana War Memorial Exterior ». State of Indiana. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 21 December 2010.
20. Jump up^ « IWM: Indiana War Memorial Museum ». in.gov.
21. Jump up^ Christine H. O’Toole (20 September 2009). « The Long Weekend: Pittsburgh, Three Ways ». The Washington Post.

Sources

• Fergusson, James (1862). « The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains. » J. Murray, London

Further reading

• Brandt, J. Rasmus, Erika Hagelberg, Gro Bjørnstad, and Sven Ahrens. 2017. Life and Death in Asia Minor in Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine Times: Studies In Archaeology and Bioarchaeology. Philadelphia: Oxbow Books.
• Cook, B. F., Bernard Ashmole, and Donald Emrys Strong. 2005. Relief Sculpture of the Mausoleum At Halicarnassus. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Dmitriev, Sviatoslav. 2005. City Government In Hellenistic and Roman Asia Minor. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Jeppeson, Kristian. 2002. The Maussolleion at Halikarnassos: Reports of the Danish archaeological expedition to Bodrum: The superstructure, a comparative analysis of the architectural, sculptural, and literary evidence. Vol. 5. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus Univ. Press.
• Steele, James, and Ersin Alok. 1992. Hellenistic Architecture In Asia Minor. London: Academy Editions.

Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.

Library resources about Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries

• The Tomb of Mausolus(W.R. Lethaby‘s reconstruction of the Mausoleum, 1908)
• Livius.org: Mausoleum of Halicarnassus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_at_Halicarnassus

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

 

Giacobbe Giusti, GIAMPIETRINO: Magdalena Penitente, Hermitage

Giacobbe Giusti, GIAMPIETRINO: Magdalena Penitente, Hermitage

 

 

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• Kugelmann, Robert (1983), The Windows of Soul: Psychological Physiology of the Human Eye and Primary Glaucoma, London, England and Toronto, Canada: Associated University Presses, ISBN 0-8387-5035-4
• Lang, J. Stephen (2003), What the Good Book Didn’t Say: Popular Myths and Misconceptions About the Bible, New York City New York: Citadel Press, ISBN 0-8065-2460-X
• Levine, Amy-Jill; Allison, Dale C. Jr.; Crossan, John Dominic (October 16, 2006), The Historical Jesus in Context, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-00992-9
• Maisch, Ingrid (1998) [1996], Mary Magdalene: The Image of a Woman through the Centuries, translated by Maloney, Linda M., Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Presss, ISBN 0-8146-2471-5
• Powell, Mark Allen (1998), Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee, Louiseville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, p. 168, ISBN 978-0-664-25703-3
• Pringle, Denys (1998), « Magdala », The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Corpus, II: L-Z (excluding Tyre), Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39037-0
• Roper, Lyndal (2016), Martin Luther: Renegade and Prophet, New York City, New York: Random House, ISBN 9780812996203
• Sabar, Ariel (2016), « The Scholar Who Discovered the ‘Jesus’s Wife’ Fragment Now Says It’s Likely a Fake », The Atlantic
• Sanders, E. P. (1993), The Historical Figure of Jesus, London, England, New York City, New York, Ringwood, Australia, Toronto, Ontario, and Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-014499-4
• Schaberg, Jane (2004) [2002], The Resurrection of Mary Magdalene: Legends, Apocrypha, and the Christian Testament, New York City, New York and London, England: Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 0-8264-1645-4
• Strong, Steven; Strong, Evan (2008), Mary Magdalene’s Dreaming: A Comparison of Aboriginal Wisdom and Gnostic Scripture, Lanham, Maryland, Boulder, Colorado, New York City, New York, Toronto, Ontario, and Plymouth, England: University Press of America, ISBN 978-0-7618-4281-1
• Wilson, Kenneth (2011), Methodist Theology, Doing Theology, London, England and New York City, New York: Bloomsbury T & T Clark, ISBN 978-0-5670-8135-3
• Witcombe, Christopher L. C. E. (June 2002), « The Chapel of the Courtesan and the Quarrel of the Magdalens », The Art Bulletin, New York City, New York: College Art Association, 84 (2): 273–292, doi:10.2307/3177269, JSTOR 3177269
• Wright, N. T. (March 1, 2003), The Resurrection of the Son of God, Christian Origins and the Question of God, 3, Eugene, Oregon: Fortress Press, ISBN 978-0800626792

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Magdalene

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, VINCENZO FOPPA: Boy Reading Cicero, Wallace Collection, London

Giacobbe Giusti, VINCENZO FOPPA: Boy Reading Cicero, Wallace Collection, London

Giacobbe Giusti, Vincenzo Foppa
Virgin of the Book c. 1475, Milan
Born	Vincenzo Foppa c. 1427-30 Bagnolo Mella, Italy
Died	c. 1515-16 Brescia, Italy
Nationality	Italian
Notable work	Crucifixion Portinari Chapel The Young Cicero Reading Adoration of the Kings
Movement	Italian Renaissance

Vincenzo Foppa (c. 1427 – c. 1515) was an Italian painter from the Renaissance period. While few of his works survive, he was an esteemed and influential painter during his time and is considered the preeminent leader of the Early Lombard School. He spent his career working for the Sforzafamily, Dukes of Milan, in Pavia, as well as various other patrons throughout Lombardy and Liguria. He lived and worked in his native Brescia during his later years.

Early life

Very little is known about the early life and training of Foppa. He was born in Bagnolo Mella, a small commune near the city of Brescia. At the time, there were few esteemed painters in the region, and the art scene in Brescia was lacking. It is therefore likely that Foppa had to seek artistic training elsewhere. Some of his earliest exposures to art were likely frescoes painted by Gentile da Fabriano in the Broletto Chapel in Brescia and the woven Annunciation by Jacopo Bellini. The latter artist was one of the strongest influences on him, and it is possible that Foppa was directly apprenticed to Bellini. He also may have been apprenticed to Bonifacio Bembo. Some historians suggest that Foppa may have had early training in Padua with Francesco Squarcione, though his earliest works are more stylistically reminiscent of Pisanello and Gentile da Fabriano. It is most likely that Foppa went to Verona for his training.^[1]

Notable Works

• Madonna and Child with Angels, c.1450, Florence, Berenson Collection
• Crucifixion, 1456, Bergamo, Accademia Carrara
• St. Jerome Penitent, c.1460, Bergamo, Accademia Carrara
• Madonna of the Book, 1460-1468, Milan, Pinacoteca del Castello Sforzesco
• Madonna and Child, 1460-1470, Berlin, Staatliche Museen
• Boy Reading Cicero, c.1464, London, Wallace Collection
• Frescoes of the Portinari Chapel, 1464–1468, Milan, Basilica of Sant’Eustorgio
  • Four Doctors of the Church
  • Eight Busts of Saints
  • Four Scenes from the Life of St. Peter Martyr :
    • Cloud Miracle
    • Miracle of the False Madonna
    • Miracle of Narni
    • Martyrdom of Saint Peter of Verona
  • Annunciation
  • Assumption of the Virgin
• St. Augustine, 1465-1470, Milan, Pinacoteca del Castello Sforzesco
• St. Theodore, 1465-1470, Milan, Pinacoteca del Castello Sforzesco
• St. Christopher, c.1470, Denver, Denver Art Museum
• Evangelists, 1477, Brescia, Carmelite Church of Santa Maria, Averoldi chapel
• Madonna and Child with an Angel, 1479-1480, Florence, Uffizi
• Bottigella Altarpiece, c.1486, Pavia, Pinacoteca Malaspina
• St. Francis receiving the stigmata and St. Giovanni Battista, 1488-1489, Milan, Pinacoteca del Castello Sforzesco
• Saint Sebastian, c.1489, Milan, Pinacoteca di Brera
• Madonna and Child in a Landscape, c.1490, Philadelphia, Philadelphia Museum of Art
• Altarpiece, c.1490, Oratory of Our Lady of the Castle, Savona, with Ludovico Brea
• Madonna and Child, 1490-1495, Milan, Museo Poldi Pezzoli
• Martyrdom of St. Sebastian, c.1485, Milan, Pinacoteca del Castello Sforzesco
• Portrait of Giovanni Francesco Brivio, 1495, Milan, Museo Poldi Pezzoli
• Portrait of an Old Gentleman, 1495-1500, Philadelphia, Philadelphia Museum of Art
• St. Anthony of Padua, 1495-1500, Washington, National Gallery of Art
• San Bernardino of Siena, 1495-1500, Washington, National Gallery of Art
• Altarpiece of Santa Maria delle Grazie, 1500-1510, Milan, Pinacoteca di Brera
• Adoration of the Magi, c.1500, London, National Gallery

Vincenzo Foppa.

References

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Foppa, Vincenzo.

1. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m}Ffoulkes, Constance J.; Maiocchi, Rodolfo (1909). Vincenzo Foppa of Brescia, Founder of the Lombard School. London: Lane.
2. Jump up^ Jones, Howard; Kilpatrick, Ross (2007). « Cicero, Plutarch, and Vincenzo Foppa: Rethinking the Medici Bank Fresco (London, the Wallace Collection, Inv. P 538) ». International Journal of the Classical Tradition. 13 (3): 369–383.
3. Jump up^ Waterhouse, E.K. (1950). « The Fresco by Foppa in the Wallace Collection ». The Burlington Magazine. 92 (567): 176–177.
4. Jump up^ Bernstein, J. Gitlin (1981). « Science and Eschatology in the Portinari Chapel ». Arte Lombarda. 26 (60): 33–40.
5. Jump up^ Urry, Serena (2004). « Technical Findings in Vincenzo Foppa’s: Adoration of the Child with Saint Benedict and Angels ». Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts. 78: 30–39.
6. Jump up^ Dunkerton, Jill; Plazzotta, Carol (2001). « Vincenzo Foppa’s ‘Adoration of the Kings' ». National Gallery Technical Bulletin. 22: 18–28.
7. Jump up^ Welch, Evelyn Samuels (1985). « New Documents for Vincenzo Foppa ». The Burlington Magazine. 127 (986): 296–300.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincenzo_Foppa

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, MASTER of the OSSERVANZA: Saint Anthony Abbot Tempted by a Heap of Gold, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Giacobbe Giusti, MASTER of the OSSERVANZA: Saint Anthony Abbot Tempted by a Heap of Gold, Metropolitan Museum of Art

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, MASTER of the OSSERVANZA: Saint Anthony Abbot Tempted by a Heap of Gold, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Saint Anthony Abbot Tempted by a Heap of Gold, c. 1435 Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Master of the Osservanza Triptych, also known as the Osservanza Master and as the Master of Osservanza, is the name given to an Italian painter of the Sienese Schoolactive about 1430 to 1450.

The Italian scholar, Roberto Longhi, recognized that two triptychs formerly attributed to Stefano di Giovanni (il Sassetta), were the work of another hand, now generally referred to as the Master of the Osservanza Triptych. The Virgin and Child with St. Jerome and St. Ambrose (Basilica dell’Osservanza, Siena) and the Birth of the Virgin (Museo d’Arte Sacra, Asciano) are both stylistically similar to the work of Stefano di Giovanni, but have a narrative expression that is characteristic of Late Gothic painting.

Longhi observed that another group of paintings was closely related to these works and appeared to be by the same hand. These included the predella of the Osservanza Altarpiece (Pinacoteca Nazionale, Siena), a predella of St. Bartholomew (Pinacoteca Nazionale, Siena), Scenes of the Passion (Vatican Museums, Philadelphia Museum of Art, and Fogg Art Museum), the Resurrection (Detroit Institute of Arts), and Scenes from the Life of St. Anthony Abbot (panels in the National Gallery of Art, Washington D. C., the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Yale University Art Museum and Museum Wiesbaden, Germany). Additionally, the full-length painting of St. Anthony Abbot in the Louvreappears to be from another altarpiece by the same master.

Research in 2010 by Maria Falcone in Siena has revealed the name of the Master to be Sano di Pietro. Falcone found a document about an altarpiece by the “Master of Osservanza” for a church in Asciano, just outside Siena, which was actually under the bishopric of Arezzo. The priest of the church in Asciano did not pay the painter and therefore the city government of Siena had to make an appeal to the bishop in Arezzo to force the priest from his district to pay the artist. The artist’s name was included on the document as Sano di Pietro.

Reference

• Carli, Enzo, Sassetta e il Maestro dell’Osservanza. (I Sommi dell’Arte Italiana), Milano, Aldo Martello, 1957.
• Fredericksen, Burton and Federico Zeri, Census of Pre-Nineteenth-Century Italian Paintings in North American Public Collections, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1972.
• Witt Library, A checklist of painters c. 1200-1976 represented in the Witt Library, Courtauld Institute of Art, London, London, Mansell Information Publishing, 1978.
• Maria Falcone, “La giovinezza dorata di Sano di Pietro: Un nuovo document per la ‘Natività della Vergine’ di Asciano”, Prospettiva, n. 138, April 2010, pp. 28–34.

• Pope-Hennessy, John & Kanter, Laurence B. (1987). The Robert Lehman Collection I, Italian Paintings. New York, Princeton: The Metropolitan Museum of Art in association with Princeton University Press. ISBN 0870994794. (see index; plate 44-45)

• Master of the Osservanza Triptych in ArtCyclopedia
• Master of the Osservanza Triptych Podere Santa Pia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_the_Osservanza_Triptych

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Raphaël: Prédelle du polyptyque Colonna

Giacobbe Giusti, Raphaël: Prédelle du polyptyque Colonna

Prédelle Colonna, élément bas du retable Colonna par Raffaello Sanzio. De gauche à droite : Saint François d’assise (25,8 x 16,8 cm, Dulwich Picture Gallery, London) – L’Agonie au jardin (23,5 x 28,8 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) – La Montée au Calvaire (24,4 x 85,5 cm, National Gallery, London) – Pietà (23,5 x 28,8 cm, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston) – Saint Antoine de Padoue (25,6 x 16,4 cm, Dulwich Picture Gallery)

Giacobbe Giusti, Raphaël: Prédelle du polyptyque Colonna

Prédelle du polyptyque Colonna de Raphaël

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyptyque

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

Crucifix du Louvre (extrait)

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

Crucifix de Pérouse

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

Saint François prêchant aux oiseaux, Assise.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

 

Master of Saint Francis, Double-sided Polyptych. Deposition. c.1272. National Gallery of Umbria,

 

Crucifix du Louvre (extrait)

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

Crucifix de Pérouse

Le Maestro di San Francesco est le nom de convention d’un peintre italien de la fin du xiii^e siècle, un maître anonyme, dont les œuvres datent de la période 1260–1280, nommé ainsi par l’historien de l’art Henry Thoded’après un panneau des Anges de la basilique Sainte-Marie-des-Anges d’Assise, en Ombrie.

C’est un peintre de fresques, de tableaux, de crucifix (peut-être de vitraux) qui a œuvré dans la région de Pérouse.

Œuvres attribuées

Plusieurs œuvres lui sont attribuées par leur caractère homogène et leur style caractéristique ; elles concernent la dernière phase de la décoration de l’église inférieure de la basilique Saint-François d’Assise (scènes de la Passion du Christ sur le mur de droite et scènes de la Vie de saint François, sur le mur de gauche) :

• Le Christ sur la Croix,
• Déposition du Christ,
• Lamentation sur le Christ mort,
• Saint François prêchant aux oiseaux,
• On lui attribue également quatre crucifix peintsà tabelloni significatifs du Christus dolens :
  • un premier à Arezzo,
  • un deuxième conservé au musée du Louvre,
  • un troisième, qui se trouve à la galerie nationale de l’Ombrie à Pérouse,
  • le dernier est à la National Gallery de Londres.
• Saint Paul trônant, anges, saints et Annonciation, v. 1360, Collection Vittorio Cini, Venise¹.

• 

  Saint Jacques le Mineur, extrait d’un panneau de polyptyque, Washington.

• 

  Lamentation sur le Christ mort, Assise.

• 

  Saint François prêchant aux oiseaux, Assise.

Notes et références

1. ↑Giovanna Nepi Sciré, La Peinture dans les Musées de Venise, Editions Place des Victoires, 2008(ISBN978-2-8099-0019-4), p. 94

Master of Saint Francis

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

Detail of a Crucifix by the Master of Saint Francis (c.1275-80)
Egg tempera on wood
National Gallery, London

The Master of Saint Francis (in Italian Maestro di S. Francesco) was an anonymous Italian painter, perhaps of Pisan origin^[1] though probably trained in Umbria,^[2] working between 1250–1280. His work embodies an important aspect of the contact between Italian and Byzantine art of this period.

Works

A painter of frescoes and panels and, perhaps, designer of stained glass in the district around Perugia, the Master of Saint Francis was given this name by art historian Henry Thode in 1885 and is based on the title of a panel painting, St. Francis with Angels, found in the Basilica of Saint Mary of the Angels in Assisi.^[3]

Much of the work attributed to him was part of the early phase in the decoration of Basilica of San Francesco of Assisi, including the fresco cycle in the nave of the Lower Church with five scenes from the Passion of Christ on the right wall and five scenes from the Life of St Francis on the left. (These were damaged by the later opening of the side chapels.) In spite of the obvious participation of assistants, the entire cycle seems to have been planned by a single artist and can be considered as homogeneous and characteristic of his style. The cycle was largely based on the later works of Giunta Pisano but also shows the influence of such Umbrian artists as Rainaldetto di Ranuccio, Simeone and Machilone and of contemporary manuscript illumination, for example the Gospel Book of Giovanni da Gaibena (Padua, Bib. Capitolare). Designs for some of the stained glass windows in the Upper Church are also attributed to him.^[4] In addition, he created a large panel painting (now divided into numerous pieces) for the church of Saint Francis al Prato in Perugia,^[4] and several painted crosses.

Within his works Byzantine elements, particularly of iconography, are found with western forms of ornamentation and a use of colour that is far from Byzantine.

Gallery of selected works

Panel painting

• 

  Saint Francis and Angels

• 

  Deposition

• 

  Saint Francis with the stigmata

• 

  The prophet Isaiah

• 

  Saint John the Evangelist

Crucifixes

• 

  The Perugia Crucifix.

• 

Stained glass

• 
• 
• 
• 

Frescoes

Giacobbe Giusti, Maestro di San Francesco

• 
• 
• 

References

1. Jump up^ Martin, Frank. « The St. Francis Master in the Upper Church of S. Francesco/Assisi: Some Considerations regarding His Origins ». Gesta. 35 (2): 177–191. doi:10.2307/767181.
2. Jump up^ « Master of Saint Francis » (PDF). National Gallery of Art Online Editions. Washington, DC. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
3. Jump up^ Pope-Hennessy, John (1987-01-01). The Robert Lehman Collection: Vol. 1, Italian Paintings. Metropolitan Museum of Art (NY). p. 78. ISBN9780870994791.
4. ^ Jump up to:^ab Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York N.Y.) (1999-01-01). Splendori Di Assisi. Capolavori Dal Museo Della Basilica Di San Francesco. Catalogo Della Mostra (1998-99). Ediz. Inglese. Electa. pp. 34–36. ISBN9788843569328.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Saint_Francis

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Bataille d’Issos

Giacobbe Giusti, Bataille d’Issos

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Bataille d’Issos

Alexandre à la bataille d’Issos, Sarcophage d’Alexandre, musée archéologique d’Istanbul.

Giacobbe Giusti, Bataille d’Issos

La Bataille d’Issus de Jan Brueghel l’Ancien, Louvre.

Giacobbe Giusti, Bataille d’Issos

Alexander battling Darius at the Battle of Issus (Naples National Archaeological Museum)

Giacobbe Giusti, Bataille d’Issos

The battle of Issus by Jan Brueghel the Elder in the Louvre

Giacobbe Giusti, Bataille d’Issos

Altdorfer‘s The Battle of Alexander at Issus

Giacobbe Giusti, Bataille d’Issos

Alessandro Magno (Lisippo)

Hermes-type bust (pillar with the top as a sculpted head) of Alexander the Great called Hermes Azara. Bears the inscription: « Alexander [the Great], son of Philip, [king of] Macedonia. » Copy of the Imperial Roman Era (1st or 2nd century CE) of a bronze sculpture made by Lysippos. Found in Tivoli, East of Rome, Italy. Pentelic marble, region of Athens.

Giacobbe Giusti, Bataille d’Issos

Alexandre et Darius face à face, Mosaïque d’Alexandre.

Informations générales

Date	1er novembre 333 av. J.-C.
Lieu	Issos, empire perse (actuelle Turquie)
Issue	Victoire décisive d’Alexandre le Grand
Changements territoriaux	Alexandre s’ouvre la route vers la Syrie

Belligérants

Royaume de Macédoine Ligue de Corinthe

Empire achéménide

Commandants

Alexandre le Grand

Darius III

Forces en présence

22 000 fantassins1 13 000 peltastes2 5 850 cavaliers1 Total : 40 850 soldats

60 000 – 80 000 fantassins perses3 11 000 cavaliers1 10 000 mélophores 10 000 mercenaires grecs4 Total : 25 000 – 108 000 soldats (estimations modernes)

Pertes

7 000 hommes5

20 000 hommes (d’après Plutarque)

Guerres d’Alexandre le Grand

Batailles

Campagne d’Alexandre dans les BalkansPélion · Thèbes
Campagnes perses d’AlexandreGranique · Milet · Halicarnasse · Issos · Tyr ·Gaugamèles · Portes persiques
Campagne indienne d’AlexandreAornos · Hydaspe

Données clés

Coordonnées	36° 50′ 16″ nord, 36° 12′ 40″ est

Géolocalisation sur la carte : Turquie

Giacobbe Giusti, Bataille d’Issos

 

La Bataille d’Issus de Jan Brueghel l’Ancien, Louvre.

Dispositif initial.

Engagement décisif.

La bataille d’Issoss’est déroulée le 1^ernovembre333 av. J.-C. dans l’antique Cilicie. Elle oppose l’armée d’Alexandre le Grand à celle de Darius III. L’armée macédonienne remporte une victoire décisive sur l’armée perse commandée par Darius III en personne.

Contexte historique

Alexandre le Grand débarque en Asie Mineure au printemps 334 av. J.-C. et défait les satrapesperses à la bataille du Granique. Mais dès l’hiver, Darius III reprend l’initiative et commence à regrouper une armée à Babylone. Confiant dans ses capacités de stratège, il entend affronter Alexandre en personne et faire sa jonction en Syrie avec le contingent des mercenaires grecs amenés par la flotte de Pharnabaze, successeur de Memnon de Rhodes dans la défense de l’Égée.

À l’été 333 av. J.-C., Alexandre, qui vient à cette époque de soumettre toute l’Asie Mineure (hormis la Paphlagonie et la Cappadoce), apprend l’arrivée de Darius en Cilicie. Il quitte Gordion et décide de se porter au-devant de l’armée perse par la Lycaonie ; il soumet la Cilicie et occupe Tarse où il est retenu plusieurs semaines des suites d’une maladie (peut-être due à une hydrocution). Alexandre conserve donc le principal corps de troupes à Tarse mais envoie Parménion occuper la région d’Issos dont le pilier de Jonas⁶ et le col de Belen qui mènent de Cilicie en Syrie.

Désireux de rattraper le retard pris, Alexandre s’avance, quelque peu imprudemment, en novembre 333 av. J.-C. vers le sud à travers la passe de Jonas. Mais Darius est informé que Parménion tient déjà le terrain ; il débouche par les portes de l’Amanos⁷ au nord et se retrouve sur les arrières d’Alexandre. Darius capture la ville d’Issos sans opposition et tue tous les malades et blessés qu’Alexandre a laissé derrière lui. Pour autant Alexandre, acculé aux régions hostiles de Syrie et de Phénicie, essaye de rester maître de la situation. Il rebrousse chemin vers le pilier de Jonas afin de mener combat dans un terrain connu. Malgré l’avis de ses conseillers grecs, Darius accepte la bataille dans une région pourtant peu propice à la cavalerie ; la supériorité numérique qui est son principal atout ne peut jouer à plein. En effet, Darius tient une position défensive dans une étroite plaine côtière que traverse le fleuve Pinaros.

Déroulement

Le lieu de la bataille se situe près de l’actuel İskenderun en Turquie actuelle⁸, aux abords d’un petit fleuve côtier appelé Pinaros durant l’Antiquité, à 10 km environ au sud d’Issos. L’identification de ce fleuve côtier pose problème mais il s’agirait bien de l’actuel Payas⁹.

Darius a l’avantage de mettre son armée la première en ordre de bataille. Il se positionne au centre, juché sur son char avec sa meilleure infanterie sa cavalerie royale. Il place ses fantassins légers (les cardaces armés comme des peltastes) sur les flancs de la montagne et dispose près de la côte, sur son aile droite, la plus grande partie de ses cavaliers légers perses et mèdes. Thymondas, fils de Mentor de Rhodes et neveu de Memnon de Rhodes, est un des commandants des mercenaires.

Suivant le dispositif habituel, Alexandre dirige la cavalerie des Compagnons sur le flanc droit tandis qu’il place sur le flanc gauche, appuyée au rivage, la cavalerie thessalienne et thrace sous le commandement de Parménion. La phalange, disposée en retrait le long du cours d’eau, est protégée sur ses flancs par des bataillons de peltastes.

La bataille commence par un choc entre les deux infanteries sur les rives du Pinaros, tandis que les frondeurs, archers et javeliniers perses ne sont pas parvenus à diminuer la solide phalange. Les mercenaires grecs de Darius combattent avec vigueur et parviennent un temps à rompre les phalangites de Cratère. Au même moment la cavalerie perse se heurte à la résistance de Parménion qui tient l’aile gauche macédonienne. Appuyé par le corps d’élite des Hypaspistes, Alexandre, à la tête de la cavalerie des Compagnons, défait l’aile gauche adverse et se rabat vers le centre de Darius. Certaines sources antiques considèrent qu’Alexandre cherche à défier Darius en combat singulier¹⁰, mais cette manœuvre au centre semble au départ davantage dirigée contre les mercenaires grecs¹¹. Pour autant une fois Darius en vue, Alexandre lance l’assaut contre lui ; la garde royale perse oppose une vive résistance autour du char royal. Plusieurs satrapes et officiers de haut rang y laissent la vie. Ses chevaux étant gravement blessés, Darius aurait été contraint de changer de quadrige, quand un dernier mouvement de panique le contraint à la fuite, entraînant la débâcle de sa cavalerie puis de son armée tout entière. En déroute dans un étroit défilé, les cavaliers perses périssent en se foulant mutuellement ou en chutant dans les ravins. La cavalerie macédonienne poursuit Darius en vain jusqu’au coucher du soleil.

Forces

Armée perse

Certaines sources anciennes (Arrien et Plutarque), basant leurs estimations sur des sources grecques, estiment à 600 000¹ le nombre de soldats perses au total, tandis que Diodore et Justin estiment à 400 000, et Quinte-Curce, à 250 000.

Les historiens modernes énoncent que les estimations d’Arrien sont largement exagérées. Ils supposent qu’à cause de la logistique de terrain, rien que 100 000 soldats au combat aurait été extrêmement difficile en ce temps. Hans Delbrückdonne une estimation de 25 000 soldats perses, mais plusieurs autres historiens (notamment Engels et Peter Green), estiment la taille totale de l’armée de Darius à environ moins de 100 000³, incluant 11 000 cavaliers¹, 10 000 mélophores et 10 000 mercenaires grecs⁴. Warry l’estime à 108 000 au total.

Armée macédonienne

Les effectifs de l’armée d’Alexandre n’ont probablement pas excédé les 40 000 hommes. L’armée, qui incluait plusieurs contingents alliés dont ceux de la Ligue de Corinthe, était constituée de 22 000 phalangites et hoplites, 13 000 peltastes et 5 850 cavaliers¹.

Conséquences

Darius parvient à s’enfuir vers l’Euphrate, laissant sa mère, ses épouses et ses enfants aux mains d’Alexandre, dont la magnanimité est grande à leur égard. C’est à ce moment que se situe l’épisode légendaire de la confusion faite par la mère de Darius entre Alexandre et Héphaistion. La défaite de Darius est un déshonneur selon les usages royaux achéménides : dans sa fuite il a abandonné ses insignes royaux (son quadrige, son arc, son bouclier et son manteau). Alexandre entame alors la conquête de la Phénicie et de l’Égypte et remporte ensuite une ultime victoire contre Darius à la bataille de Gaugamèles en 331 av. J.-C.

La bataille dans la postérité

Alexandre à la bataille d’Issos, Sarcophage d’Alexandre, musée archéologique d’Istanbul.

Alexandre chevauchant Bucéphaleà la bataille d’Issos, Mosaïque d’Alexandre.

Histoire de l’art

Suivant Pline l’Ancien¹², la bataille d’Issos a été illustrée par un peintre grec, Philoxénos d’Érétrie, pour le compte de Cassandre de Macédoine vers 300 av. J.-C.Cette peinture a été détruite mais elle a inspiré la célèbre Mosaïque d’Alexandre, trouvée dans la maison du Faune à Pompéi. Cette mosaïque, qui daterait du ii^e siècle av. J.-C., est visible au musée national de Naples. La bataille d’Issos est aussi probablement représentée sur le sarcophage dit d’Alexandre retrouvé à Sidon. Ce sarcophage a été sculpté au iv^e siècle av. J.-C. pour le roi phénicien Abdalonymos, installé à la tête de la cité de Sidon par Alexandre.

Albrecht Altdorfer a également représenté la bataille d’Issos dans la Bataille d’Alexandre en 1529 après une commande de Guillaume IV de Bavière. On y voit Alexandre poursuivant Darius, au cœur d’une marée humaine sous un ciel tourmenté.

Jan Brueghel l’Ancien a peint en 1602 une huile sur toile nommée La Bataille d’Issus, ou La bataille d’Arbèles.

Propagande

Durant la Première Guerre mondiale, lors de la campagne menée par les Britanniques en Mésopotamie, les Britanniques utilisent le souvenir de la bataille pour marquer les esprits des soldats alliés engagés dans une guerre d’usure sans perspective¹³.

Notes et références

1. ↑ ^{a, b, c, d, e et f}Moerbeek (1997).
2. ↑Warry (1998) estime que l’effectif de l’armée d’Alexandre n’excède pas 31 000 hommes.
3. ↑ ^a et b(en)« pothos.org – Major Battles » [archive](consulté le 19 août 2016).
4. ↑ ^a et bWelman.
5. ↑Welman estime qu’à peu près 16% de l’armée hellénique a été tué.
6. ↑On parle aussi de la passe de Jonas. À 10 km au nord d’Iskenderun, la plaine côtière disparaît et la montagne ne laisse qu’un passage malaisé en bord de mer.
7. ↑Ou Pyles Amanides (en grec : Amanides pylai, Ἀμανίδες πύλαι), actuel Col de Bahçe, à un peu moins de 1 000 m d’altitude. Bahçe est situé à 10 km sous le col du côté de la Cilicie, c’est-à-dire sur le versant ouest. Position du col : 37° 10′ 06″ N, 36° 40′ 47″ E.
8. ↑İskenderun appelée Alexandrette (en grec : Ἀλεξανδρέττα) ou Alexandrie d’Issos (en grec : Αλεξάνδρεια της Ισσού ; en latin : Alexandria ad Issum). Iskandar en arabe : ʾiskandar, إسكندر mais avec l’article : al-ʾiskandar, الإسكندر et en persaniskandar, اسکندر, signifie Alexandre. La ville est a été fondée par Alexandre pour commémorer la victoire d’Issos. Il n’est pas certain qu’Iskenderun soit exactement à l’emplacement de la ville d’Alexandrie antique qui venait elle-même de supplanter la cité phénicienne préexistante Myriandre (Myriande, Myriandrus), située elle aussi dans le même voisinage.
9. ↑Pour des arguments en faveur de cette hypothèse, voir par exemple : Donald W. Engels, Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army, University of California Press, 1980, 194 p.(ISBN978-052004272-8, présentation en ligne [archive], lire en ligne [archive]), « Appendix 2 : The Site of the Pinarus », p. 131-134. L’embouchure de la rivière Payas (Payas Çayı) est située près de Yakacık (Payas) 36° 45′ 09″ N, 36° 11′ 32″ E. L’autre rivière souvent citée est la Deli Çay (« rivière folle ») dont l’embouchure est près de Dörtyol (« carrefour » ou mot-à-mot « quatre chemins ») 36° 49′ 50″ N, 36° 10′ 03″ E soit environ 10 km plus au nord. Une troisième rivière, plus rarement citée, est la Kuru Çay (« rivière sèche ») entre les deux précédentes à 2 km au sud de la Deli Çay.
10. ↑Diodore de Sicile, Bibliothèque historique[détail des éditions][lire en ligne [archive]], XVII, 33, 5 ; Quinte-Curce, Histoire d’Alexandre, 3, 11, 7.
11. ↑Arrien, « Anabase. Livre II, 11, 1-4. » [archive], sur « L’antiquité grecque et latine » [archive].
12. ↑Pline l’Ancien, « Histoire naturelle, Livre XXXV, 45. » [archive], sur « L’antiquité grecque et latine » [archive].
13. ↑Satia, 2016, p. 94.

Sources

• Arrien, Anabase [lire en ligne [archive]], II, 11, 1-4.
• Diodore de Sicile, Bibliothèque historique[détail des éditions] [lire en ligne [archive]], XVII, 31-35.
• Plutarque, Vies parallèles [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne [archive]], Alexandre.
• Quinte-Curce, L’Histoire d’Alexandre le Grand[lire en ligne [archive]], III, 6-11.

Bibliographie

• Sophie Chautard, Les Grandes Batailles de l’histoire, Studyrama, 2005 [archive].
• Paul Goukowsky, Alexandre et la conquête de l’Orient dans Le monde grec et l’Orient, II, PUF, 1975.
• (en) Peter Green, Alexander to Actium : The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age, 1990.
• Priya Satia (trad. Christophe Jaquet), « Centralité des marges : Les campagnes britanniques au Moyen-Orient pendant la Grande Guerre », Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, vol. 1,‎ 2016, p. 87-126 (lire en ligne [archive]) (inscription nécessaire) – via Cairn.info. 
• (en) N. Sekunda et J. Warry, Alexander the Great : His Armies and Campaigns 334-323 BC, London, 1998.
• Martijn Moerbeek, The battle of Issus, 333 BC. [archive] Université de Twente, 1997.

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataille_d%27Issos

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Zanobi Machiavelli: Saint Nicholas of TolentinoSaves a Hanged Man

Giacobbe Giusti, Zanobi Machiavelli: Saint Nicholas of TolentinoSaves a Hanged Man

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Zanobi Machiavelli: Saint Nicholas of TolentinoSaves a Hanged Man

Saint Nicholas of TolentinoSaves a Hanged Man, by Zanobi Machiavelli, Rijksmuseum, 1470

Zanobi Machiavelli (1418–1479) was an Italian painter and illuminator.

Machiavelli specialized in religious themed pieces. Some of his works reside at the National Gallery, London,^[1] and the Dunedin Public Art Gallery. He died in Pisa in 1479.^[2]

References

1. Jump up^ « Zanobi Machiavelli tryptychs, National Gallery, London ». Retrieved 2009-01-11.
2. Jump up^ « Zanobi Machiavelli References , J. Paul Getty Museum ». Retrieved 2009-01-11.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanobi_Machiavelli

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com