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Giacobbe Giusti, Rabbula Gospels, Biblioteca Mediceo Laurenziana, Florence

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 8 octobre 2018
Publié dans: Election of the Apostle Mathias by the Eleven fol. 1b Theotokos (Virgin Mary) with the infant Jesus fol. 2a Christ receives a book from two monks (dedication) / The saints Eusebius of Caesarea and A, Giacobbe Giusti, Rabbula Gospels, Biblioteca Mediceo Laurenziana, Florence, Peers, Glenn, Review of Bernabò (see Further reading) Jump up^ Miniatures from the Rabbula Gospels ms. Jump up^ Wright, David H. "The Date and Arrangement of the Illustrations in the Rabbula Gosp, Rabbula Gospels, Biblioteca Mediceo Laurenziana, Florence, Senza categoria. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Rabbula Gospels, Biblioteca Mediceo Laurenziana, Florence

Giacobbe Giusti, Rabbula Gospels, Biblioteca Mediceo Laurenziana, Florence

Giacobbe Giusti, Rabbula Gospels, Biblioteca Mediceo Laurenziana, Florence

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Rabbula Gospels, Biblioteca Mediceo Laurenziana, Florence

Folio 13v of the Rabbula Gospels contains a miniature of the Ascension.

The Rabbula Gospels, or Rabula Gospels, (Florence, Biblioteca Mediceo Laurenziana, cod. Plut. I, 56) is a 6th-century illuminatedSyriac Gospel Book. One of the finest Byzantine works produced in Asia, and one of the earliest Christian manuscripts with large miniatures, it is distinguished by the miniaturist’s predilection for bright colours, movement, drama, and expressionism. Coming from a period from which little art survives, and which saw great development in Christian iconography, the manuscript has a significant place in art history, and is very often referred to.

Recent scholarship has suggested that the manuscript completed in 586 was later partly overpainted by restorers and bound together with miniatures from other sources in the 15th or 16th century.[1]

 

Description

The earliest crucifixion in an illuminated manuscript, from the Rabbula Gospels.

The Gospel was completed in 586 at Monastery of St. John of Zagba (Syriac: ܒܝܬ ܙܓܒܐ, Bēṯ Zaḡbā), which, although traditionally thought to have been in Northern Mesopotamia, is now thought to have been in the hinterland between Antioch and Apameain modern Syria. It was signed by its scribe, Rabbula (ܪܒܘܠܐ, Rabbulā) about whom nothing else is known. In their current condition the folios are 34 cm (13.4 in) by 27 cm (10.6 in). Their original size is unknown because they were trimmed during previous rebindings. The text is written in black or dark brown ink in two columns of a variable number of lines. There are footnotes written in red ink at the bottom of many of the columns. The text is the Peshitta version of the Syriac translation of the Gospels.

The manuscript is illuminated, with the text framed in elaborate floral and architectural motifs. The Gospel canons are set in arcadesornamented with flowers and birds. The miniaturist obviously drew some of his inspiration from Hellenistic art (draped figures), but relied mainly on the ornamental traditions of Persia. The miniatures of the Rabbula Gospels, notably those representing the Crucifixion, the Ascension and Pentecost, are real pictures with a decorative frame formed of zigzags, curves, rainbows and so forth. The scene of the Crucifixion is the earliest to survive in an illuminated manuscript, and shows the Eastern form of the image at the time. There is a miniature of the Apostles choosing a new twelfth member (after the loss of Judas); this is not an event found in the Canonical Gospels (though it is mentioned in Chapter 1 of Acts) and is almost never seen in later art. The artist was trained in the classical illusionist tradition, and is a competent and practiced hand rather than an outstanding talent; but surviving images from this period are so rare that his are extremely valuable for showing the style and iconography of his age.

Folio 4v of the Rabbula Gospels showing the canon tables, harmonization of the four gospels, with marginal miniatures.

The French Orientalist Edgard Blochet (1870–1937) argued that some of the folios of the manuscript, including the pictorial series, were an interpolation no earlier than the 10th or 11th century. Since the original captionaccompanying the miniatures is of the same paleographic character as the main text of the manuscript, this theory was rejected by Giuseppe Furlani and by Carlo Cecchelli in the commentary of the facsimile edition of the miniatures published in 1959.[2] But doubts as to the original unity of the contents continued.[3] More recently, scholars have proposed that the text of 586 was only bound up together with the miniatures in the 15th century, and that the miniatures themselves were taken from at least one other original manuscript, and come from two different campaigns of work.[1]

The history of the manuscript after it was written is vague until the 11th century when it was at (Maifuc -Jbeil/Byblos Lebanon). In the late 13th or early 14th century it came to Quannubin. In the late 15th or early 16th century, the manuscript was taken by the Maronite Patriarch to the Laurentian Library in Florence, where it is today.

The Manuscript has served during Medieval Age as register of Maronites Patriarches (Elias Kattar) [4],

Large miniatures

References

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b Peers, Glenn, Review of Bernabò (see Further reading)
  2. Jump up^ Miniatures from the Rabbula Gospels ms.
  3. Jump up^ Wright, David H. « The Date and Arrangement of the Illustrations in the Rabbula Gospels. » Dumbarton Oaks Papers 27 (1973): 197-208. Web., JSTOR
  4. Jump up^ « Holy Spirit University of Kaslik | لبنان الوسيط عهد السلاطين المماليك ». http://www.usek.edu.lb. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
  • Walther, Ingo F.; Wolf, Norbert (2005), Codices Illustres: The world’s most famous illuminated manuscripts, 400 to 1600, Köln: Taschen.
  • Weitzmann, Kurt (1977), Late Antique and Early Christian Book Illumination, New York: George Braziller.

Further reading

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbula_Gospels

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 13 septembre 2018
Publié dans: Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire, Senza categoria, Sol Invictus, Roman empire, Sol Invictus, Roman empire giacobbe giusti. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire

Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire

Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire

Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire

Mosaic of Sol in Mausoleum M in the Vatican Necropolis[1]

Sol Invictus (« Unconquered Sun ») was the official sun godof the later Roman Empireand a patron of soldiers. On 25 December 274 AD the Roman emperor Aurelianmade it an official cultalongside the traditional Roman cults.[2] Scholars disagree about whether the new deity was a refoundation of the ancient Latin cult of Sol,[3] a revival of the cult of Elagabalus,[4] or completely new.[5] The god was favored by emperors after Aurelian and appeared on their coins until Constantine I.[6] The last inscription referring to Sol Invictus dates to AD 387,[7] and there were enough devotees in the fifth century that the Christian theologian Augustine found it necessary to preach against them.[8]

Invictus as epithet

Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire

Dedication made by a priest of Jupiter Dolichenus on behalf of the well-being (salus) of the emperors, to Sol Invictus and the Genius of the military unit equites singulares Augusti[9]

Invictus(« unconquered, invincible ») was an epithet utilized for several Roman deities, including Jupiter, Mars, Hercules, Apollo, and Silvanus.[10] It had been in use from the 3rd century BC.[11] The Roman cult to Sol is continuous from the « earliest history » of the city until the institution of Christianity as the exclusive state religion. Scholars have sometimes regarded the traditional Sol and Sol Invictus as two separate deities, but the rejection of this view by S. E. Hijmans has found supporters.[12]

An inscription of AD 102 records a restoration of a portico of Sol in what is now the Trastevere area of Rome by a certain Gaius Iulius Anicetus.[13] While he may perhaps have had in mind an allusion to his own cognomen, which is the Latinized form of the Greek equivalent of invictus, ἀνίκητος (aniketos),[14] the earliest extant dated inscription that uses invictus as an epithet of Sol is from AD 158.[15] Another, stylistically dated to the 2nd century, is inscribed on a Roman phalera(ornamental disk): inventori lucis soli invicto augusto (« to the contriver of light, sol invictus augustus »).[dubious – discuss][16][17] Augustus is a regular epithet linking deities to the Imperial cult.[citation needed]

Sol Invictus played a prominent role in the Mithraic mysteries, and was equated with Mithras.[18][19][20] The relation of the Mithraic Sol Invictus to the public cult of the deity with the same name is unclear and perhaps non-existent.[21]

Elagabalus

According to the Historia Augusta, Elagabalus, the teenaged Severan heir, adopted the name of his deity and brought his cult image from Emesa to Rome. Once installed as emperor, he neglected Rome’s traditional State deities and promoted his own as Rome’s most powerful deity. This ended with his murder in 222. The Historia Augusta refers to the deity Elagabalus as « also called Jupiter and Sol » (fuit autem Heliogabali vel Iovis vel Solis).[22] While this has been seen as an attempt to import the Syrian sun god to Rome,[23] the Roman cult of Sol had existed in Rome in the earlier Republic.[24]

Aurelian

Roman Imperial repoussé silverdisc of Sol Invictus (3rd century), found at Pessinus (British Museum)

The Roman gens Aurelia was associated with the cult of Sol.[25] After his victories in the East, the Emperor Aurelian thoroughly reformed the Roman cult of Sol, elevating the sun-god to one of the premier divinities of the Empire. Where previously priests of Sol had been simply sacerdotes and tended to belong to lower ranks of Roman society,[26] they were now pontifices and members of the new college of pontifices instituted by Aurelian. Every pontifex of Sol was a member of the senatorial elite, indicating that the priesthood of Sol was now highly prestigious. Almost all these senators held other priesthoods as well, however, and some of these other priesthoods take precedence in the inscriptions in which they are listed, suggesting that they were considered more prestigious than the priesthood of Sol.[27] Aurelian also built a new temple for Sol, which was dedicated on December 25, 274,[2] and brought the total number of temples for the god in Rome to (at least) four.[28] He also instituted games in honor of the sun god, held every four years from a.d. 274 onwards.

The identity of Aurelian’s Sol Invictus has long been a subject of scholarly debate. Based on the Augustan History, some scholars have argued that it was based on Sol Elagablus (or Elagabla) of Emesa. Others, basing their argument on Zosimus, suggest that it was based on the Šams, the solar god of Palmyra on the grounds that Aurelian placed and consecrated a cult statue of the sun god looted from Palmyra in the temple of Sol Invictus.[29] Professor Gary Forsythe discusses these arguments and adds a third more recent one based on the work of Steven Hijmans. Hijmans argues that Aurelian’s solar deity was simply the traditional Greco-Roman Sol Invictus.[30]

Constantine

Coin of Emperor Constantine Idepicting Sol Invictus with the legend SOLI INVICTO COMITI, c. 315

Emperors portrayed Sol Invictus on their official coinage, with a wide range of legends, only a few of which incorporated the epithet invictus, such as the legend SOLI INVICTO COMITI, claiming the Unconquered Sun as a companion to the Emperor, used with particular frequency by Constantine.[31] Statuettes of Sol Invictus, carried by the standard-bearers, appear in three places in reliefs on the Arch of Constantine. Constantine’s official coinage continues to bear images of Sol until 325/6. A solidus of Constantine as well as a gold medallion from his reign depict the Emperor’s bust in profile twinned (jugate) with Sol Invictus, with the legend INVICTUS CONSTANTINUS[32]

Constantine decreed (March 7, 321) dies Solis—day of the Sun, « Sunday« —as the Roman day of rest (Codex Justinianus 3.12.2):

On the venerable day of the Sun let the magistrates and people residing in cities rest, and let all workshops be closed. In the country however persons engaged in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their pursuits because it often happens that another day is not suitable for grain-sowing or vine planting; lest by neglecting the proper moment for such operations the bounty of heaven should be lost.[33]

Constantine’s triumphal arch was carefully positioned to align with the colossal statue of Sol by the Colosseum, so that Sol formed the dominant backdrop when seen from the direction of the main approach towards the arch.[34]

Sol and the other Roman Emperors

Berrens[35] deals with coin-evidence of Imperial connection to the Solar cult. Sol is depicted sporadically on imperial coins in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, then more frequently from Septimius Severusonwards until AD 325/6. Sol invictus appears on coin legends from AD 261, well before the reign of Aurelian.[36]

Identical reverse as the coin of Constantine I but with Emperor Liciniuson head

Coin of Emperor Probus, c. 280, with Sol Invictus riding a quadriga, with legend SOLI INVICTO, « to the Unconquered Sun »: the Emperor (at left) wears a radiated solar crown, worn also by the god on the obverse

Aurelian in his radiate crown, on a silvered bronze coin struck at Rome, 274–275

Connections between the imperial radiate crown and the cult of Sol are postulated. Augustus was posthumously depicted with radiate crown, as were living emperors from Nero (after AD 65) to Constantine. Some modern scholarship interprets the imperial radiate crown as a divine, solar association rather than an overt symbol of Sol; Bergmann calls it a pseudo-object designed to disguise the divine and solar connotations that would otherwise be politically controversial[37][38] but there is broad agreement that coin-images showing the imperial radiate crown are stylistically distinct from those of the solar crown of rays; the imperial radiate crown is depicted as a real object rather than as symbolic light.[39] Hijmans argues that the Imperial radiate crown represents the honorary wreath awarded to Augustus, perhaps posthumously, to commemorate his victory at the Battle of Actium; he points out that henceforth, living emperors were depicted with radiate crowns, but state divi were not. To Hijmans this implies the radiate crown of living emperors as a link to Augustus. His successors automatically inherited (or sometimes acquired) the same offices and honours due to Octavian as « saviour of the Republic » through his victory at Actium, piously attributed to Apollo-Helios. Wreaths awarded to victors at the Actian Games were radiate.[40]

Festival of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti

The Philocalian calendar of AD 354 gives a festival of « Natalis Invicti » on 25 December. There is limited evidence that this festival was celebrated before the mid-4th century.[41][42] Whether this date was intended to celebrate solstice is doubtful; one scholar writes that « the cult of the Sun in pagan Rome ironically did not celebrate the winter solstice nor any of the other quarter-tense days, as one might expect. »[43]« .

Since the 12th century[44] there have been speculations that the near-solstice date of 25 December for Christmas was selected because it was the date of the festival of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, but this has been contested by The Calculation Hypothesis through the writings of the Early Christian Fathers. For example, Hippolytus of Rome, between 202 and 211 AD, said in his commentary of the Book of Daniel that the Birth of Jesus is December 25th[45], though this passage is generally considered a late interpolation[by whom?]. The manuscript includes another passage, one that is more likely to be authentic, that gives the passion as March 25.[46]

Legacy

Christianity

The halo of Jesus has similarities to a parhelion or a sun cross.

According to one hypothesis about Christmas, it was set to 25 December because it was the date of the festival of Sol Invictus. This idea became popular especially in the 18th[47][48] and 19th centuries.[49][50][51]

The charioteer in the mosaic of Mausoleum M has been interpreted by some as Christ. Clement of Alexandria had spoken of Christ driving his chariot across the sky.[52]This interpretation is doubted by others: « Only the cross-shapednimbus makes the Christian significance apparent. »[53] and the figure is seen by some simply as a representation of the Sun with no explicit religious reference whatever, pagan or Christian.[54]

Judaism

Mosaic in the Beth Alphasynagogue, with the Sun in the centre, surrounded by the twelve zodiac constellations and with the four seasons associated inaccurately with the constellations

The traditional image of the Sun has also been used in early Jewish art. A mosaic floor in Hamat Tiberiaspresents David as Helios surrounded by a ring with the signs of the zodiac.[55] As well as in Hamat Tiberias, figures of Helios or Sol Invictus also appear in several of the very few surviving schemes of decoration surviving from Late Antique synagogues, including Beth Alpha, Husefa, all now in Israel, and Naaranin the West Bank. He is shown in floor mosaics, with the usual radiate halo, and sometimes in a quadriga, in the central roundel of a circular representation of the zodiac or the seasons. These combinations « may have represented to an agricultural Jewish community the perpetuation of the annual cycle of the universe or … the central part of a calendar ».[56]

Notes

  1. Jump up^ « Archived copy ». Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-08-25.
  2. ^ Jump up to:a b Manfred Clauss, Die römischen Kaiser – 55 historische Portraits von Caesar bis Iustinian, ISBN 978-3-406-47288-6, p. 250
  3. Jump up^ See S. E. Hijmans, « The sun that did not rise in the east », Babesch 71 (1996) p.115–150
  4. Jump up^ See Gaston Halsberghe, « The cult of Sol Invictus », Leiden: Brill, 1972
  5. Jump up^ As Hijmans states (p.115): « Scholars have consistently postulated a clear distinction between the Republican Sol Indiges and the Imperial Sol Invictus. » and p.116 « We should keep in mind, however, that most scholars agree that this cult [Sol Indiges] was never important, and that it had disappeared altogether by the beginning of the second century AD »
  6. Jump up^ Halsberghe, « The cult of Sol Invictus », p.155: « Up to the conversion of Constantine the Great, the cult of Deus Sol Invictus received the full support of the emperors. The many coins showing the sun god that these emperors struck provide official evidence of this. » and p.169 « the custom of representing Deus Sol Invictus on coins came to an end in AD 323. »
  7. Jump up^ Halsberghe, « The cult of Sol Invictus », p.170 n.3: « CIL VI, 1778, dates from AD 387, »
  8. Jump up^ Halsberghe, p.170, n.4: « Augustine, Sermones, XII; also in Ennaratio in Psalmum XXV; Ennaratio II, 3. »
  9. Jump up^ CIL VI.31181.
  10. Jump up^ Hijmans, S. E. (2009). « The sun which did not rise in the east », p. 124.
  11. Jump up^ Hijmans, Steven Ernst. (2009). Sol: The Sun in the Art and Religions of Rome (diss., University of Groningen 2009), p. 18, with citations from the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
  12. Jump up^ Hijmans (2009, pp. Chapter 1) (a reworking of Hijmans, 1996; Matern, 2001; Wallraff, 2002; and Berrens, 2004; all follow Hijmans.
  13. Jump up^ (Hijmans 2009, pp. 483–508 (Chapter 5))
  14. Jump up^ (Hijmans, 2009, 486, footnote 22)
  15. Jump up^ CIL VI, 715: Soli Invicto deo / ex voto suscepto / accepta missione / honesta ex nume/ro eq(uitum) sing(ularium) Aug(usti) P(ublius) / Aelius Amandus / d(e)d(icavit) Tertullo et / Sacerdoti co(n)s(ulibus)« Archived copy ». Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2009-11-12. (Publius Aelius Amandus dedicated this to the god Sol Invictus in accordance with the vow he had made, upon his honorable discharge from the equestrian guard of the emperor, during the consulship of Tertullus and Sacerdos); see: Campbell, J. (1994). The Roman army, 31 BC–AD 337: a sourcebook, p. 43; Halsberghe 1972, p. 45.[1]
  16. Jump up^ Guarducci, M. (1957/1959). Sol invictus Augustus. Rendiconti della Pont, 3rd series 30/31, pp. 161 ff. Accademia Romana di Archeologia
  17. Jump up^ An illustration is provided in Kantorowicz, E. H. (1961). Gods in Uniform, 368–393, 383, fig. 34 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 105(4), (August 1961).
  18. Jump up^ Ulansey, David. (1989). The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries, p. 107. Oxford University Press.
  19. Jump up^ Salzman, Michele Renee. (2004). Pagan and Christian Notions of the Week in the 4th Century CE Western Roman Empire In Time and Temporality in the Ancient World, p. 192. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
  20. Jump up^ Alvar, Jaime, tr. Gordon, Richard (2008). Romanising Oriental Gods: Myth, Salvation, and Ethics in the Cults of Cybele, Isis, and Mithras, p. 100. Brill.
  21. Jump up^ (Alvar, 2008, p. 203)
  22. Jump up^ Historia Augusta, 1, 5: English translation (Loeb) from Thayer [2] & Latin text [3]
  23. Jump up^ See in particular Halsberghe 1972.
  24. Jump up^ Hijmans 1996, Matern 2001, Wallraff 2002, Berrens 2004, Hijmans (2009)).
  25. Jump up^ J.C. Richard, « Le culte de Sol et les Aurelii: À propos de Paul Fest. p. 22 L. », in Mélanges offerts à Jacques Heurgon: L’Italie préromaine et la Rome républicaine (Rome, 1976), 915–925.
  26. Jump up^ (Hijmans 2009, pp. 504–5)
  27. Jump up^ For a full list of the pontifices of Sol see J. Rupke (ed.), Fasti Sacerdotum (2005), p. 606. Memmius Vitrasius Orfitus lists his priesthoods as pontifex of Vesta, one of the quindecimviri sacris faciundis, and pontifex of Sol, in that order (Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum vol. 6, 1739–1742). In a list of eight priesthoods, Vettius Agorius Praetextatus puts Pontifex Solis in third place (CIL VI, 1779).
  28. Jump up^ The other three were in the Circus Maximus, on the Quirinal, and in Trastevere. (Hijmans 2009, chapter 5)
  29. Jump up^ Dirven, Lucinda (1999). The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria. BRILL. p. 169. ISBN 978-9004115897. Archived from the original on 2015-12-08.
  30. Jump up^ Forsythe, Gary (2012). Time in Roman Religion: One Thousand Years of Religious History. Routledge. pp. 142–143. ISBN 978-0415522175.
  31. Jump up^ A comprehensive discussion of all sol-coinage and sol-legends per emperor from Septimius Severus to Constantine can be found in Berrens (2004).
  32. Jump up^ The medal is illustrated in Jocelyn M.C. Toynbee, Roman Medallions(1944, reprinted 1987) plate xvii, no. 11; the solidus is illustrated in J. Maurice, Numismatique Constantinienne vol. II, p. 236, plate vii, no. 14
  33. Jump up^ Excellent discussion of this decree by Wallraff 2002, 96–102.
  34. Jump up^ E. Marlowe, « Framing the sun. The Arch of Constantine and the Roman cityscape », Art Bulletin 88 (2006) 223–242.
  35. Jump up^ S. Berrens, Sonnenkult und Kaisertum von den Severern bis zu Constantin I. (193–337 n. Chr.) Stuttgart: Steiner 2004 (Historia-Einzelschriften 185).
  36. Jump up^ Berrens 2004, precise p. number to follow. The coinage Elagabalus does not use invictus for Roman Sol, nor the Emesan Solar deity Elagabalus.
  37. Jump up^ Bergmann 1998, 121–123
  38. Jump up^ S. Hijmans, « Metaphor, Symbol and Reality: the Polysemy of the Imperial Radiate Crown », in: C. C. Mattusch (ed.), Common ground. Archaeology, art, science, and humanities. Proceedings of the XVIth International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Boston, August 23–26, 2003, Oxford (2006), 440–443; (Hijmans 2009, pp. 80–84, 509–548)
  39. Jump up^ Bergmann 1998, 116–117; Hijmans 2009, 82–83.
  40. Jump up^ Hijmans 2009, 509–548. A mosaic floor in the Baths of the Porta Marina at Ostia depicts a radiate victory crown on a table as well as a victorious competitor wearing one.« Archived copy ». Archived from the original on 2008-11-09. Retrieved 2009-11-12.
  41. Jump up^ Wallraff 2001: 174–177. Hoey (1939: 480) writes: « An inscription of unique interest from the reign of Licinius embodies the official prescription for the annual celebration by his army of a festival of Sol Invictus on December 19 ». The inscription (Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 8940) actually prescribes an annual offering to Sol on November 18 (die XIV Kal(endis) Decemb(ribus), i.e., on the fourteenth day before the Kalends of December).
  42. Jump up^ Text at [4] Archived 2007-12-04 at the Wayback Machine. Parts 6 and 12 respectively.
  43. Jump up^ Michael Alan Anderson, Symbols of Saints (ProQuest 2008 ISBN 978-0-54956551-2), pp. 45-46
  44. Jump up^ Bishop Jacob Bar-Salabi (cited in Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, Ramsay MacMullen. Yale:1997, p. 155)
  45. Jump up^ http://www.dec25th.info/Textual[permanent dead link] Tradition of Hippolytus Commentary on Daniel.html
  46. Jump up^ Towards the Origins of Christmas, Roll, S. (1995), p. 87
  47. Jump up^ Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, Researches Into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom, Volume 2, p. 270; John Murray, London, 1871; revised edition 1889.
  48. Jump up^ Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Volume 3, 1885, T and T Clark, Edinburgh, page 396; see also Volume 4 in the 3rd edition, 1910 (Charles Scribner’s Sons, NY).
  49. Jump up^ Anderson, Michael Alan (2008). Symbols of Saints. ProQuest. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-54956551-2.
  50. Jump up^ « The Day God Took Flesh ». Melkite Eparchy of Newton of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church. 25 March 2012. Archived from the original on 23 December 2014.
  51. Jump up^ Wikisource-logo.svg Martindale, Cyril (1913). « Christmas« . In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  52. Jump up^ Webb, Matilda (2001). The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome. Sussex Academic Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-90221058-2.
  53. Jump up^ Kemp, Martin (2000). The Oxford History of Western Art. Oxford University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-19860012-1., emphasis added
  54. Jump up^ Hijmans 2009, p. 567-578.
  55. Jump up^ David R. Cartlidge, James Keith Elliott, The Art of Christian Legend(Routledge 2001 ISBN 978-0-41523392-7), p. 64
  56. Jump up^ Weitzmann, pp. 370, 375

Bibliography

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_Invictus

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

 

Giacobbe Giusti, MELOZZO da FORLI’: Selection of musician angels from fresco paintings of the Basilica dei Santi Apostoli

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 1 septembre 2018
Publié dans: Giacobbe Giusti, MELOZZO da FORLI': Selection of musician angels from fresco paintings of the Basilica dei Santi Apostoli, Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Melozzo da Forlí". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Bryan, Michael (1886), Robert Edmund Graves, ed., Dictionary of Painters and Engravers, MELOZZO da FORLI': Selection of musician angels from fresco paintings of the Basilica dei Santi Apostoli, Senza categoria. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, MELOZZO da FORLI’: Selection of musician angels from fresco paintings of the Basilica dei Santi Apostoli

 

Melozzo da Forlì
Melozzo.jpg

self-portrait
Born c. 1438
Forlì
Died 1494 (aged 55–56)
Forlì
Education Forlì painting school
Known for Painting, architecture
Notable work Frescoes of the Basilica of Santi Apostoli, Rome, Basilica della Santa Casa (Loreto)
Movement Italian Renaissance
Patron(s) Ansuino da Forlì

Melozzo da Forlì(c. 1438 – 8 November 1494) was an Italian Renaissance painter and architect. His frescopaintings are notable for the use of foreshortening. He was the most important member of the Forlì painting school.

Biography

Melozzo was supposedly from a wealthy family named Ambrosi from Forlì. Nothing is known about his early years. It is only a hypothesis[1]that he was formed by the Forlivese school of art, then dominated by Ansuino da Forlì; both were influenced by Andrea Mantegna. It has been said, also without confirmation, that he became a journeyman and color-grinder to master painters. His presence was first mentioned in his birthplace in 1460 and again in 1464. Around this period, and together with Antoniazzo Romano, he painted frescoes in the Bessarione chapel in the Basilica dei Santi Apostoli in Rome. Melozzo then moved to Urbino, probably between 1465 and 1474. There he met Piero della Francesca, who profoundly influenced Melozzo’s style and use of perspective. He would have also studied architecture by Bramante and the work of Flemish painters then working for duke Federico da Montefeltro. Melozzo may have worked with Justus of Ghent and Pedro Berruguete to decorate the studiolo of the city’s famous Ducal Palace.

Around 1472-74, Melozzo transferred to Rome, although some authorities claim his presence in Rome five or ten years earlier for work in the Basilica di San Marco. In 1477 he finished his first major work in the new seat, a fresco now transferred to canvas and placed in the Pinacoteca Vaticana, representing Sixtus IV Appointing Platina as Librarian of the Vatican Library. In the same year Girolamo Riario built his palace in Rome, now known as Palazzo Altemps, with designs by Melozzo. In 1478 he was one of the original members of the Academy of St Luke, founded by Sixtus IV to unite the chief painters working in the city.

In about 1472-74, Melozzo was commissioned by Pietro Riario to paint the vault of the apse in the basilica dei Santi Apostoli in Rome, his subject being the Ascension of Christ. In this work, Christ is boldly and effectively foreshortened. This fresco was taken down in 1711. The figure of Christ is now in the Quirinal Palace; while some of the other portions, which influenced Raphael, are in the sacristy of St Peter’s. A hall in the Vatican Museums, with designs of angels and apostles by Melozzo, was taken from the same fresco. Another work of the Roman period is an Annunciation that can still be seen in the Pantheon.

Melozzo’s last work in Rome was a chapel, now destroyed, in the church of Santa Maria in Trastevere. After the death of Sixtus IV in 1484, Melozzo moved from Rome to Loreto. There he painted the fresco in the cupola of the sacristy of San Marco in the Basilica della Santa Casa, commissioned by cardinal Girolamo Basso della Rovere. It is one of the first examples of a cupola decorated both with architectures and figures; it greatly influenced the Camera degli Sposiby Mantegna.

In 1489 Melozzo returned to Rome. During this period he probably drew some cartoons for the mosaics of Jesus blessing in the Chapel of St Helena of the basilica of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme.

Melozzo also painted the cupola of the Capuchin church at Forlì, which was destroyed in 1651. It has been said that he executed at Urbino some of the portraits of great men (Plato, Dante, Sixtus IV, et al) which are now divided between the Barberini Palace and the Campana collection in Paris. In 1493 he worked on some ceilings, now lost, of the Palazzo Comunale of Ancona. Eventually Melozzo returned to Forlì, where, together with his pupil Marco Palmezzano, he decorated the Feo Chapel in the church of San Biagio, which was destroyed during World War II. The Pinacoteca of Forlì houses a fresco by Melozzo, known as the « Pestapepe, » or Pepper-grinder, now much damaged. Originally painted as a grocer’s sign, it is an energetic example of rather coarse realism and is Melozzo’s only secular subject.

Melozzo died in November 1494 in Forlì and is buried in the Church of the Santissima Trinita (Most Holy Trinity).

Giacobbe Giusti, MELOZZO da FORLI’: Selection of musician angels from fresco paintings of the Basilica dei Santi Apostoli

Selection of musician angels from fresco paintings of the Basilica dei Santi Apostoli, by Melozzo da Forli (Pinacoteca of the Vatican Museums)

Legacy

While few of Melozzo’s works are still preserved, critics agree that he contributed to the progress of pictorial art. Without being remarkable as a colorist, he painted with care and finish, creating fine and dignified figures. His use of perspective influenced other painters. Melozzo’s works bear a certain resemblance to those of his contemporary Andrea Mantegna. Marco Palmezzano was a pupil of Melozzo. The signature « Marcus de Melotius » on some of Palmezzano’s works, along with a general affinity of style, has led to their being ascribed to Melozzo and to the latter being incorrectly named « Marco Melozzo ». The paintings of Melozzo strongly influenced Michelangelo, Raphael and Donato Bramante.

References

Notes

  1. Jump up^ The theory is credited to Luigi Lanzi. See Wikisource-logo.svg Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). « Melozzo da Forlí« . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melozzo_da_Forl%C3%AC

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Res Gestæ Divi Augusti

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 28 août 2018
Publié dans: Claude Badami, La traduction grecque des Res Gestæ Diui Augusti, 2013, Connaissances et Savoirs, 212 pages(ISBN2753902208). (it) Concetta Barini, Monumentum ancyranim, Res Gestæ divi Augusti, 193, Giacobbe Giusti, Res Gestæ Divi Augusti, Res gestae (Auguste), Senza categoria, Theodor Mommsen, ed., Res gestæ Divi Augusti, 1865, réédité en 1883. (la + grc + fr)Res gestæ diui Augusti ex monumentis Ancyrano et Antiocheno Latinis Ancyrano et Apolloniensi Græcis(trad.. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Res Gestæ Divi Augusti

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Res Gestæ Divi Augusti

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Res Gestæ Divi Augusti

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Res Gestæ Divi Augusti

Le Monumentum Ancyranum, où ont été retrouvés les Res Gestæ

Res gestae.

Giacobbe Giusti, Res Gestæ Divi Augusti

Un fragment des Res Gestæ. (CILIII, p 0774 [archive]).

Les Res Gestæ Divi Augusti (les Actes du divin Auguste) sont le testament politique du premier empereur romain, Auguste, dans lequel il offre un compte-rendu à la première personne de ses actions et de ses réalisations.

Le texte n’est pas complet, car certaines parties manquent, et d’autres nous sont parvenues sous la forme de fragments. Le texte est complété par d’autres découvertes archéologiques, effectuées à Ancyre, en 1555, à Antioche de Pisidie, et Sardes.

Le contexte

L’empereur Auguste confia en dépôt aux Vestales, un an avant sa mort en l’an 14, trois rouleaux1 scellés (ou quatre selon Dion Cassius2) contenant :

  • des indications sur la manière de régler ses funérailles ;
  • le compte-rendu de ses actions (en latin index rerum gestarum), qui devait être gravé sur des tables de bronze à placer devant son mausolée à Rome ;
  • un état de situation de tout l’Empire (breviarium totius imperii), indiquant les effectifs de l’armée et le bilan financier du trésor public, du trésor impérial et des redevances.

Le second rouleau, appelé Res gestæ, fut effectivement gravé sur deux tables de bronze fixées à des piliers devant le mausolée d’Auguste, et des copies en ont été faites et affichées sur les murs des nombreux temples d’Auguste à travers l’Empire3.

Le quatrième volume, très discuté, contenait peut-être des conseils au Sénat et donc à Tibère sur la politique intérieure et extérieure à suivre pour l’Empire3.

Les découvertes archéologiques

 

Le Monumentum Ancyranum, où ont été retrouvés les Res Gestæ.

Bien que les tables de bronze de Rome aient disparu, le texte des Res gestæ est connu grâce aux copies qui ont été découvertes à Ancyre en 1555, à Antioche de Pisidie (près de la ville turque d’Yalvaç) entre 1914 et 1924 sous forme de nombreux fragments de l’original latin4, à Apollonie de Pisidie en 19305 composée de fragments en grec6 et récemment à Sardes.

La copie d’Ancyre (aujourd’hui Ankara) est la plus complète et sert de base7. Elle a été découverte en 1555 par Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, un humaniste et diplomate flamand chargé par l’empereur Ferdinand d’une ambassade auprès de Soliman le Magnifique8. Cet homme curieux de tout se promenait le long du « Temple de Rome et d’Auguste » (le Monumentum Ancyranum) reconverti en mosquée quand il leva les yeux et vit des caractères non arabes. Elle est accompagnée d’une traduction grecque, puisqu’elle se situe dans la partie orientale de l’Empire.

Les épigraphistes du xixe siècle s’enthousiasmèrent pour ce texte prestigieux lié à la personne d’Auguste. En 1862, l’archéologue Georges Perrot réalisa des fac-similés grandeur nature qu’il exposa au musée Napoléon III et des photographies de l’inscription d’Ancyre. Vue son importance historique, Theodor Mommsen, qui dirigeait la publication du Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL), monumental recueil des inscriptions latines, choisit d’en faire en 1865 l’édition dans un ouvrage séparé9. L’inscription fut ensuite publiée en 1871 dans le tome III du CIL dédié aux inscriptions latines d’Asie, des provinces grecques d’Europe et d’Illyrie.

En 1914, Sir William Mitchell Ramsay trouvait dans les fouilles du forum d’Antioche de Pisidie une soixantaine de fragments du texte latin des Res Gestæ, qui furent publiés à Baltimore par David Robinson (en) en 1926. Ces fragments confirmèrent la plupart du temps le texte d’Ancyre, ou introduisirent des variantes minimes qui ne changeaient pas le sens du texte10.

Le texte

Statue en bronze d’Auguste.

Le second rouleau, proprement appelé Res gestæ et gravé sur des tables de bronze, se compose de 35 paragraphes qui peuvent être regroupés en quatre sections, et d’un court appendice.

  • Première partie(paragraphes 1 à 14) : elle décrit la carrière politique d’Auguste, son cursus honorum, les charges, offices et honneurs qu’il a occupés ou reçus.
  • Seconde partie(paragraphes 15 à 24) : elle cite les distributions d’argent, les constructions et restaurations de monuments, de temples, de portiques, de forums, de routes et de ponts. Auguste mentionne aussi les jeux et les spectacles qu’il a organisés, impliquant au total 10 000 gladiateurs, 3 500 bêtes sauvages ainsi qu’un spectacle de combat naval où participèrent 3 000 hommes.
  • Troisième partie (paragraphes 25 à 33) : elle décrit ses hauts faits militaires et son action diplomatique qui ont étendu l’Empire romain vers la Gaule, l’Asie et l’Afrique, jusqu’en Arabie et en Éthiopie.
  • Quatrième partie (paragraphes 34 et 35) : elle met en évidence les origines des noms Auguste et père de la patrie.
  • Appendice : écrit à la troisième personne contrairement au reste du texte, il n’est probablement pas de la main d’Auguste. Cet appendice résume l’ensemble du texte, cite l’exceptionnelle position d’Auguste au sein du gouvernement, et liste les différents monuments qu’il a construits ou rénovés sur ses propres fonds.

Analyse politique

De par leur nature, les Res gestæ ne sont pas objectifs, et tendent à l’apologie du principat institué par Auguste. Ils se concentrent sur les événements intervenus entre l’assassinat de Jules César, le père adoptif d’Auguste, et la victoire d’Actium à partir de laquelle le pouvoir d’Auguste n’est plus contesté. Les assassins de César, Brutus et Cassius ne sont pas nommés, mais évoqués par la périphrase « ceux qui ont tué mon père ». La bataille de Philippesn’est mentionnée qu’en passant mais jamais désignée par son nom. De même, les adversaires d’Auguste Marc Antoine et Sextus Pompée, restent anonymes, le premier est « celui qui j’ai combattu », et le second simplement un « pirate ».

Le texte ne mentionne pas l’imperium maius d’Auguste. Souvent citée, la position officielle d’Auguste — « Par la suite [à partir de -27, fin de la guerre civile], malgré ma prééminence sur tous, je n’ai eu aucun pouvoir supérieur à celui de mes collègues qui ont exercé les mêmes magistratures que moi » — illustre la volonté de celui-ci de se présenter comme le « restaurateur » de la vieille république romaine, dont le chef ne serait qu’un premier entre les égaux (position légale), alors qu’il concentre entre ses mains la réalité du pouvoir (de par la puissance tribunicienne).

Les Res gestæ constituent une tentative unique de relations publiques de la part du premier empereur romain, alors que la nature du nouveau régime était encore expérimentale. Si l’on se fonde sur la fréquence avec laquelle les historiens ultérieurs (anciens et modernes) ont utilisé les Res gestæ pour définir le règne d’Auguste, on peut en conclure que ces Res gestæconstituent un véritable succès en termes de communication.

Aspects géographiques

Les paragraphes 25 à 33 des Res gestæ sont également un document géographique qui donne une vision d’ensemble du monde connu des Romains au début de l’Empire et affirme leur maîtrise directe ou indirecte sur le monde habité, l’orbis terrarum. Pas moins de 55 noms géographiques y figurent, dont certains sont mentionnés pour la première fois en langue latine11 :

Selon Claude Nicolet, par cette impressionnante énumération, Auguste signifiait l’achèvement de la conquête du monde connu.

Notes et références

  1. ↑Suétone, Vie d’Auguste, 101
  2. ↑Dion Cassius, 56, 33, 1
  3. ↑ a et bClaude Nicolet, L’inventaire du monde, Géographie et politique aux origines de l’Empire romain, Fayard, 1988, (ISBN2-213-02020-5), p 29
  4. ↑Référence épigraphique ZPE-154-227 [1] [archive]
  5. ↑L’inscription d’Apollonie de Pisidie a été publiée dans Monumenta Asiæ minoris antiqua, volume IV, 1933, n° 143 (cf. commentaire [2] [archive]
  6. ↑Cumont F., Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire, 1936, vol. 15, n° 1, p. 179 [3] [archive]
  7. ↑Références épigraphiques et texte latin : CILIII, p 0774 [archive]CIL 03, p 0774 (p 1054, 2328,57) = IGRRP-03, 00159 = IDRE-02, 00394 = Scheid = Cooley = GLIA-01, 00001 = AE2007, +00036 [archive] = AE 2007, +00037 = AE 2009, +00035
  8. ↑Hubert Le Bourdellès, « Busbecq : 1521-1591. Un humaniste et un homme d’action européen » [Conférence de la section lilloise de l’association Guillaume Budé], Bulletin de l’Association Guillaume Budé, n°2, juin 1991. p. 207 lire en ligne [archive]
  9. ↑Besnier Maurice, « Lettre de Mommsen à Léon Renier sur la dédicace des Res Gestæ Divi Augusti à l’Académie des Inscriptions », Journal des savants, 12e année, Avril 1914, pp. 176-182, lire en ligne [archive], p. 178
  10. ↑Jardé Auguste. David M. Robinson. « The deeds of Augustus as recorded on the monumentum Antiochenum » (Extrait de l’American Journal of Philology, XLVII, 1). In: Revue des Études Grecques, tome 42, fascicule 195-196, Avril-juin 1929. p. 210, lire en ligne [archive]
  11. ↑Claude Nicolet, ouvrage précité, p 34-35

Traductions

Traductions commentées

  • (la) (grc) Theodor Mommsen, ed., Res gestæ Divi Augusti, 1865, réédité en 1883.
  • (la + grc + fr)Res gestæ diui Augusti ex monumentis Ancyrano et Antiocheno Latinis Ancyrano et Apolloniensi Græcis(trad.Jean Gagé, préf. Jean Gaget), Paris, Les Belles Lett0res,  (réimpr. 1950), 3eéd. (1reéd. 1935), 232 p..
Présentation de cet ouvrage par Constans L.-A. dans le Journal des savants, Novembre-décembre 1935, pp. 276-277, lire en ligne [archive].
  • Res Gestæ divi Augusti. Hauts faits du divin Auguste (trad. John Scheid), Les Belles Lettres, 2007, 954 pages(ISBN2251014462).
Note de présentation dans « Livres offerts », Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 152e année, N. 1, 2008, p. 44, lire en ligne [archive].

Études

  • Claude Badami, La traduction grecque des Res Gestæ Diui Augusti, 2013, Connaissances et Savoirs, 212 pages(ISBN2753902208).
  • (it) Concetta Barini, Monumentum ancyranim, Res Gestæ divi Augusti, 1930, Milan.
Présentation de cet ouvrage dans le Journal des savants, Mai 1930, pp. 230-231, lire en ligne [archive].

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Res_gestae_(Auguste)

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Dura – Europos, Syria

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 15 juin 2018
Publié dans: Christ and Simon-Peter walking on water. Wall painting in the baptistry of the Domus ecclesiae in Dura Europos., Churches in Syria Fresco paintings 3rd-century churches Ancient Roman buildings and structures in Syria Roman Empire art Dura-Europos Buildings and structures in Deir ez-Zor Governorate Early Christia, Dura - Europos, Syria - remains of the christian church with the western wall recently restored, Dura - Europos, Syria, Dura Europos domus ecclesiae., Dura-Europos church, Giacobbe Giusti, Dura - Europos, Syria, Oldest churches in the world Dura-Europos Lullingstone Roman Villa, another rare house-church from Roman Britain, Photo of Baptistery Diagram of Church "7 vs. 8: The Battle Over the Holy Day at Dura-Europos" Bible Review, Aug. 1996, Senza categoria, Snyder, Graydon F. (2003). Ante Pacem: Archaeological Evidence of Church Life Before Constantine. Mercer University Press. p. 128. Jump up^ The people are holy: the history and theology of Free Chu, Syria, The healing of the paralytic : wall painting in the baptistry of the domus ecclesiae in Dura Europos., The Samaritan at the well. Wall painting in the baptistry of the domus ecclesiae in Dura Europos., The Dura-Europos church (also known as the Dura-Europos house church) is the earliest identified Christian house church.[1]It is located in Dura-Europos in Syria.. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Dura – Europos, Syria

The Good Shepherd, Adam and Eve. Wall painting in the baptistry of the domus ecclesiae in Dura Europos.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Dura – Europos, Syria

Christ and Simon-Peter walking on water. Wall painting in the baptistry of the Domus ecclesiae in Dura Europos.

Giacobbe Giusti, Dura – Europos, Syria

The healing of the paralytic : wall painting in the baptistry of the domus ecclesiae in Dura Europos.

Giacobbe Giusti, Dura – Europos, Syria

The Samaritan at the well. Wall painting in the baptistry of the domus ecclesiae in Dura Europos.

Giacobbe Giusti, Dura – Europos, Syria

Dura – Europos, Syria – remains of the christian church with the western wall recently restored

Giacobbe Giusti, Dura – Europos, Syria

The Dura-Europos house church with chapel area on right.

The Dura-Europos church (also known as the Dura-Europos house church) is the earliest identified Christian house church.[1]It is located in Dura-Europos in Syria. It is one of the earliest known Christian churches,[2] and was apparently a normal domestic house converted for worship some time between 233 and 256, when the town was abandoned after conquest by the Persians.[3] It is less famous, smaller, and more modestly decorated than the nearby Dura Europos synagogue, though there are many other similarities between them.

Although the fate of the church structure is unknown after occupation by ISIS, its famous frescos were removed after discovery and are now preserved at Yale University Art Gallery.[4]

History

The site of Dura-Europos, a former city and walled fortification, was excavated largely in the 1920s and 1930s by French and American teams. Within the archaeological site, the house church is located by the 17th tower and preserved by the same defensive fill that saved the nearby Dura-Europos synagogue.

The building consists of a house conjoined to a separate hall-like room, which functioned as the meeting room for the church. The surviving frescoes of the room serving as the baptistry are probably the most ancient Christian paintings. The « Good Shepherd« , the « Healing of the paralytic » and « Christ and Peter walking on the water » are considered the earliest depictions of Jesus Christ.[5]

A much larger fresco depicts three women (the third mostly lost) approaching a large sarcophagus. This most likely depicts the three Marys visiting Christ’s tomb.[6] There were also frescoes of Adam and Eve as well as David and Goliath. The frescoes clearly followed the Hellenistic Jewish iconographic tradition, but they are more crudely done than the paintings of the nearby Dura-Europos synagogue.[7]

Fragments of parchment scrolls with Hebrew texts have also been unearthed; they resisted meaningful translation until J.L. Teicher pointed out that they were Christian Eucharistic prayers, so closely connected with the prayers in Didache that he was able to fill lacunae in the light of the Didache text.[8]

In 1933, among fragments of text recovered from the town dump outside the Palmyrene Gate, a fragmentary text from an unknown Greek gospel harmonyaccount was unearthed. It was comparable to Tatian‘s Diatessaron, but independent of it.

Gallery

Frescoes of the baptistry

  • The Good Shepherd

  • Healing of the paralytic

  • Christ and Peter walking on water

  • Women at the tomb

  • The Samaritan Woman by the Well

See also

References

  1. Jump up^ Snyder, Graydon F. (2003). Ante Pacem: Archaeological Evidence of Church Life Before Constantine. Mercer University Press. p. 128.
  2. Jump up^ The people are holy: the history and theology of Free Church worship by Graydon F. Snyder, Doreen M. McFarlane 2005 ISBN 0-86554-952-4 page 30
  3. Jump up^ Floyd V. Filson (June 1939). « The Significance of the Early House Churches ». Journal of Biblical Literature. 58 (2): 105–112. doi:10.2307/3259855. JSTOR 3259855.
  4. Jump up^ Yale University
  5. Jump up^ Graydon F. Snyder, Ante pacem: archaeological evidence of church life before Constantine, pp. 129-134, (Mercer University Press, 2003) google books
  6. Jump up^ Yale: « Unearthing the Christian building », p.4
  7. Jump up^ F. Snyder, Ante pacem: archaeological evidence of church life before Constantine, pp. 129-134, Mercer University Press, 2003
  8. Jump up^ J.L. Teicher, « Ancient Eucharistic Prayers in Hebrew (Dura-Europos Parchment D. Pg. 25) », The Jewish Quarterly Review New Series 54.2 (October 1963), pp. 99-109

Further reading

External links

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 17 avril 2018
Publié dans: Architecture portal Catholicism portal Vatican City portal Art patronage of Julius II Italian Renaissance painting Index of Vatican City-related articles Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore Miserere (All, Baptism of Christ by Pietro Perugino and assistants Temptation of Christ by Sandro Botticelli Vocation of the Apostles by Domenico Ghirlandaio The Sermon on the Mount, attributed to Cosimo Rossell, Botticcelli, Sandro - The Punishment of Korah and the Stoning of Moses and Aaron, Deimling, Barbara (2000), Sandro Botticelli 1444/45–1510, Köln: Taschen, ISBN 3-8228-5992-3 Earls, Irene (1987), Renaissance Art: A Topical Dictionary, Westport: Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-2, Detail from The Last Judgement by Michelangelo, Ekelund, Hébert & Tollison 2006, p. 313 Jump up^ Vatican City, Whc.unesco.org, retrieved 9 August 2011 Jump up^ Pietrangeli 1986, p. 28 Jump up^ Monfasani, John (1983), "A Description of , Ghirlandaio: The.Calling.of.the.First.Apostles, Hendrick van den Broeck Resurrection of Christ, Michelangelo - Fresco of the Last Judgement, Moses Leaving to Egypt by Pietro Perugino and assistants The Trials of Moses by Sandro Botticelli and his workshop The Crossing of the Red Sea by Cosimo Rosselli, Domenico Ghirlandaio or Bi, Perugino, Consegna delle chiavi, Senza categoria, signorelli, Sistine Chapel ceiling, Michelangelo, The Libyan Sibyl, Sistine Chapel(/ˌsɪstiːn ˈtʃæpəl/; Latin: Sacellum Sixtinum; Italian: Cappella Sistina[kapˈpɛlla siˈstiːna]) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the Pope, The Vatican: spirit and art of Christian Rome. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Ar, Trials of Moses by Botticelli, V&A - Raphael, St Paul Preaching in Athens. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Michelangelo, lunetta, Jacob – Joseph

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Perugino: Taufe Christi

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Botticelli: Begebenheiten aus dem Leben des Mose

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Ghirlandaio: The.Calling.of.the.First.Apostles

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Perugino, Consegna delle chiavi

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Botticcelli, Sandro – The Punishment of Korah and the Stoning of Moses and Aaron

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

V&A – Raphael, St Paul Preaching in Athens

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Signorelli: Testament und Tod Mose

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Sistine Chapel ceiling, Michelangelo, The Libyan Sibyl

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Rosselli: Die Bergpredigt

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Detail from The Last Judgement by Michelangelo

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Rosselli: Das letzte Abendmahl

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Hendrick van den Broeck Resurrection of Christ

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Michelangelo – Fresco of the Last Judgement

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Creazione di Adamo

Michelangelo Buonarroti 

  • Sistine Chapel
  • Cappella Sistina(Italian)

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel
Sistina-interno.jpg

Sistine Chapel, from the altar end

Sistine Chapel is located in Vatican City

Sistine Chapel
Location on a map of Vatican City
Basic information
Location Vatican City
Affiliation Roman Catholic
District Diocese of Rome
Country Vatican City
Year consecrated 15 August 1483
Ecclesiastical or organizational status Papal oratory
Leadership Francis
Website mv.vatican.va
Architectural description
Architect(s) Baccio Pontelli, Giovanni de Dolci[1]
Architectural type Church
Groundbreaking 1473[1]
Completed 1481[1]
Specifications
Length 40.9 metres (134 ft)
Width (nave) 13.4 metres (44 ft)
Height (max) 20.7 metres (68 ft)
Official name: Vatican City
Type Cultural
Criteria i, ii, iv, vi
Designated 1984[2]
Reference no. 286
State Party Flag of the Vatican City.svgHoly See
Region Europe and North America

The Sistine Chapel(/ˌsɪstiːn ˈtʃæpəl/; Latin: Sacellum Sixtinum; Italian: Cappella Sistina[kapˈpɛlla siˈstiːna]) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the Pope, in Vatican City. Originally known as the Cappella Magna, the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who restored it between 1477 and 1480. Since that time, the chapel has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today it is the site of the Papal conclave, the process by which a new pope is selected. The fame of the Sistine Chapel lies mainly in the frescos that decorate the interior, and most particularly the Sistine Chapel ceiling and The Last Judgment by Michelangelo.

During the reign of Sixtus IV, a team of Renaissance painters that included Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli, created a series of frescos depicting the Life of Moses and the Life of Christ, offset by papal portraits above and trompe l’oeil drapery below. These paintings were completed in 1482, and on 15 August 1483 Sixtus IV celebrated the first mass in the Sistine Chapel for the Feast of the Assumption, at which ceremony the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.[3][4]

Between 1508 and 1512, under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo painted the chapel’s ceiling, a project which changed the course of Western art and is regarded as one of the major artistic accomplishments of human civilization.[5][6] In a different climate after the Sack of Rome, he returned and between 1535 and 1541, painted The Last Judgment for Popes Clement VII and Paul III.[7]The fame of Michelangelo’s paintings has drawn multitudes of visitors to the chapel ever since they were revealed five hundred years ago.

History

While known as the location of Papal conclaves, the primary function of the Sistine Chapel is as the chapel of the Papal Chapel(Cappella Pontificia), one of the two bodies of the Papal household, called until 1968 the Papal Court(Pontificalis Aula). At the time of Pope Sixtus IV in the late 15th century, the Papal Chapelcomprised about 200 people, including clerics, officials of the Vatican and distinguished laity. There were 50 occasions during the year on which it was prescribed by the Papal Calendar that the whole Papal Chapel should meet.[8] Of these 50 occasions, 35 were masses, of which 8 were held in Basilicas, in general St. Peter’s, and were attended by large congregations. These included the Christmas Day and Easter masses, at which the Pope himself was the celebrant. The other 27 masses could be held in a smaller, less public space, for which the Cappella Maggiore was used before it was rebuilt on the same site as the Sistine Chapel.

The Cappella Maggiore derived its name, the Greater Chapel, from the fact that there was another chapel also in use by the Pope and his retinue for daily worship. At the time of Pope Sixtus IV, this was the Chapel of Pope Nicholas V, which had been decorated by Fra Angelico. The Cappella Maggiore is recorded as existing in 1368. According to a communication from Andreas of Trebizond to Pope Sixtus IV, by the time of its demolition to make way for the present chapel, the Cappella Maggiore was in a ruinous state with its walls leaning.[9]

The Sistine Chapel as it may have appeared in the 15th century (19th-century drawing)

The present chapel, on the site of the Cappella Maggiore, was designed by Baccio Pontelli for Pope Sixtus IV, for whom it is named, and built under the supervision of Giovannino de Dolci between 1473 and 1481.[1] The proportions of the present chapel appear to closely follow those of the original. After its completion, the chapel was decorated with frescoes by a number of the most famous artists of the High Renaissance, including Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Pietro Perugino, and Michelangelo.[9]

The first mass in the Sistine Chapel was celebrated on 15 August 1483, the Feast of the Assumption, at which ceremony the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.[10]

The Sistine Chapel has maintained its function to the present day, and continues to host the important services of the Papal Calendar, unless the Pope is travelling. There is a permanent choir, the Sistine Chapel Choir, for whom much original music has been written, the most famous piece being Gregorio Allegri‘s Miserere.[11]

Papal conclave

Main article: Papal conclave

One of the functions of the Sistine Chapel is as a venue for the election of each successive pope in a conclave of the College of Cardinals. On the occasion of a conclave, a chimney is installed in the roof of the chapel, from which smoke arises as a signal. If white smoke appears, created by burning the ballots of the election, a new Pope has been elected. If a candidate receives less than a two-thirds vote, the cardinals send up black smoke — created by burning the ballots along with wet straw and chemical additives — it means that no successful election has yet occurred.[12]

The conclave also provided for the cardinals a space in which they can hear mass, and in which they can eat, sleep, and pass time attended by servants. From 1455, conclaves have been held in the Vatican; until the Great Schism, they were held in the Dominican convent of Santa Maria sopra Minerva.[13] Since 1996, John Paul II‘s Apostolic ConstitutionUniversi Dominici gregis requires the cardinals to be lodged in the Domus Sanctae Marthae during a papal conclave, but to continue to vote in the Sistine Chapel.[14]

Canopies for each cardinal-elector were once used during conclaves—a sign of equal dignity. After the new Pope accepts his election, he would give his new name; at this time, the other Cardinals would tug on a rope attached to their seats to lower their canopies. Until reforms instituted by Saint Pius X, the canopies were of different colours to designate which Cardinals had been appointed by which Pope. Paul VI abolished the canopies altogether, since, under his papacy, the population of the College of Cardinals had increased so much to the point that they would need to be seated in rows of two against the walls, making the canopies obstruct the view of the cardinals in the back row.

Architecture

Structure

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Exterior of the Sistine Chapel

The chapel is a high rectangular building, for which absolute measurements are hard to ascertain, as available measurements are for the interior: 40.9 metres (134 ft) long by 13.4 metres (44 ft) wide, the dimensionsof the Temple of Solomon, as given in the Old Testament.[15]

Its exterior is unadorned by architectural or decorative details, as is common in many Italian churches of the Medieval and Renaissanceeras. It has no exterior façade or exterior processional doorways, as the ingress has always been from internal rooms within the Apostolic Palace (Papal Palace), and the exterior can be seen only from nearby windows and light-wells in the palace. Subsidence and cracking of masonry such as must also have affected the Cappella Maggiore has necessitated the building of very large buttresses to brace the exterior walls. The accretion of other buildings has further altered the exterior appearance of the Chapel.

The building is divided into three stories of which the lowest is a very tall basement level with several utilitarian windows and a doorway giving onto the exterior court. Internally, the basement is robustly vaulted to support the chapel. Above is the main space, the Sistine Chapel, the vaulted ceiling rising to 20.7 metres (68 ft). The building had six tall arched windows down each side and two at either end, several of which have been blocked. Above the vault is a third story with wardrooms for guards. At this level, an open projecting gangway was constructed, which encircled the building supported on an arcade springing from the walls. The gangway has been roofed as it was a continual source of water leaking in to the vault of the Chapel.

A reconstruction of the appearance of the chapel in the 1480s, prior to the painting of the ceiling.

The general proportions of the chapel use the length as the unit of measurement. This has been divided by three to get the width and by two to get the height. Maintaining the ratio, there were six windows down each side and two at either end. Defined proportions were a feature of Renaissance architectureand reflected the growing interest in the Classical heritage of Rome.

The ceiling of the chapel is a flattened barrel vault springing from a course that encircles the walls at the level of the springing of the window arches. This barrel vault is cut transversely by smaller vaults over each window, which divide the barrel vault at its lowest level into a series of large pendentives rising from shallow pilasters between each window. The barrel vault was originally painted brilliant-blue and dotted with gold stars, to the design of Piermatteo Lauro de’ Manfredi da Amelia.[9] The pavement is in opus alexandrinum, a decorative style using marble and coloured stone in a pattern that reflects the earlier proportion in the division of the interior and also marks the processional way from the main door, used by the Pope on important occasions such as Palm Sunday.

A screen or transenna in marble by Mino da Fiesole, Andrea Bregno, and Giovanni Dalmata divides the chapel into two parts.[16] Originally these made equal space for the members of the Papal Chapel within the sanctuary near the altar and the pilgrims and townsfolk without. However, with growth in the number of those attending the Pope, the screen was moved giving a reduced area for the faithful laity. The transenna is surmounted by a row of ornate candlesticks, once gilt, and has a wooden door, where once there was an ornate door of gilded wrought iron. The sculptors of the transenna also provided the cantoriaor projecting choir gallery.

Decoration

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Diagram of part of the vertical fresco decoration of the Sistine Chapel

The first stage in the decoration of the Sistine Chapel was the painting of the ceiling in blue, studded with gilt stars, and with decorative borders around the architectural details of the pendentives. This was entirely replaced when Michelangelo came to work on the ceiling in 1508.

Of the present scheme of frescos, the earliest part is that of the side walls. They are divided into three main tiers. The central tier of the walls has two cycles of paintings, which complement each other, The Life of Moses and The Life of Christ. They were commissioned in 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV and executed by Domenico Ghirlandaio, Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Cosimo Roselli and their workshops. They originally ran all round the walls, but have since been replaced on both end walls.

The project was perhaps supervised by Perugino, who arrived at the chapel prior to the Florentines. It is probable that the commission of Ghirlandaio, Botticelli and Roselli was part of a reconciliation project between Lorenzo de’ Medici, the de facto ruler of Florence, and Pope Sixtus IV. The Florentines started to work in the Sistine Chapel in the Spring of 1481.

Beneath the cycles of The Life of Moses and The Life of Christ, the lower level of the walls is decorated with frescoed hangings in silver and gold. Above the narrative frescos, the upper tier is divided into two zones. At the lower level of the windows is a Gallery of Popespainted at the same time as the Lives. Around the arched tops of the windows are areas known as the lunettes which contain the Ancestors of Christ, painted by Michelangelo as part of the scheme for the ceiling.

The ceiling was commissioned by Pope Julius II and painted by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512. The commission was originally to paint the twelve apostles on the triangular pendentives which support the vault; however, Michelangelo demanded a free hand in the pictorial content of the scheme. He painted a series of nine pictures showing God’s Creation of the World, God’s Relationship with Mankind, and Mankind’s Fall from God’s Grace. On the large pendentives he painted twelve Biblical and Classical men and women who prophesied that God would send Jesus Christ for the salvation of mankind, and around the upper parts of the windows, the Ancestors of Christ.

In 1515, Raphael was commissioned by Pope Leo X to design a series of ten tapestries to hang around the lower tier of the walls.[17] The tapestries depict events from the Life of St. Peter and the Life of St. Paul, the founders of the Christian Church in Rome, as described in the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. Work began in mid-1515. Due to their large size, manufacture of the hangings was carried out in Brussels, and took four years under the hands of the weavers in the shop of Pieter van Aelst.[18] Raphael’s tapestries were looted during the Sack of Rome in 1527 and were either burnt for their precious metal content or were scattered around Europe. In the late 20th century, a set was reassembled from several further sets that had been made after the first set, and displayed again in the Sistine Chapel in 1983. The tapestries continue in use at occasional ceremonies of particular importance. The full-size preparatory cartoonsfor seven of the ten tapestries are known as the Raphael Cartoons and are in London.[19]

At this point, the decorative scheme displayed a consistent iconographical pattern. The tier of Popes, which, in the scheme intended by Pope Julius, would have appeared immediately below the Twelve Apostles, would have emphasised the apostolic succession. It has been argued that the present scheme shows the two Biblical Testaments merged in order to reveal the Old predicting and framing the New, synthesizing, the logic of the Christian Bible.[20]

This was disrupted by a further commission to Michelangelo to decorate the wall above the altar with The Last Judgment, 1537–1541. The painting of this scene necessitated the obliteration of two episodes from the Lives, the Nativity of Jesus and the Finding of Moses; several of the Popes and two sets of Ancestors.

Frescoes

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Trials of Moses by Botticelli

The southern wall is decorated with the Stories of Moses, painted in 1481–1482. Starting from the altar, they include:

Northern wall

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

The Delivery of the Keys by Perugino

The northern wall houses the Stories of Jesus, dating to 1481–1482. They include:

Eastern wall

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

 

  • Disputation over Moses’ Body by Matteo da Lecce (1574) over Luca Signorelli’s original

Michelangelo’s frescoes

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo

Michelangelo was commissioned by Pope Julius II in 1508 to repaint the vault, or ceiling, of the Chapel. It was originally painted as golden stars on a blue sky. The work was completed between 1508 and 2 November 1512.[21] He painted the Last Judgment over the altar, between 1535 and 1541, on commission from Pope Paul IIIFarnese.[22]

Michelangelo was intimidated by the scale of the commission, and made it known from the outset of Julius II’s approach that he would prefer to decline. He felt he was more of a sculptor than a painter, and was suspicious that such a large-scale project was being offered to him by enemies as a set-up for an inevitable fall. For Michelangelo, the project was a distraction from the major marble sculpture that had preoccupied him for the previous few years.[23]

The sources of Michelangelo’s inspiration are not easily determined; both Joachite and Augustinian theologians were within the sphere of Julius influence.[24]

Ceiling

: Sistine Chapel ceiling
: Gallery of Sistine Chapel ceiling
Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

A section of the Sistine Chapel ceiling

To be able to reach the ceiling, Michelangelo needed a support; the first idea was by Julius’ favoured architect Donato Bramante, who wanted to build for him a scaffold to be suspended in the air with ropes. However, Bramante did not successfully complete the task, and the structure he built was flawed. He had perforated the vault in order to lower strings to secure the scaffold. Michelangelo laughed when he saw the structure, and believed it would leave holes in the ceiling once the work was ended. He asked Bramante what was to happen when the painter reached the perforations, but the architect had no answer.

The matter was taken before the Pope, who ordered Michelangelo to build a scaffold of his own. Michelangelo created a flat wooden platform on brackets built out from holes in the wall, high up near the top of the windows. Contrary to popular belief, he did not lie on this scaffolding while he painted, but painted from a standing position.[25]

Michelangelo used bright colours, easily visible from the floor. On the lowest part of the ceiling he painted the ancestors of Christ. Above this he alternated male and female prophets, with Jonah over the altar. On the highest section, Michelangelo painted nine stories from the Book of Genesis. He was originally commissioned to paint only 12 figures, the Apostles. He turned down the commission because he saw himself as a sculptor, not a painter. The Pope offered to allow Michelangelo to paint biblical scenes of his own choice as a compromise. After the work was finished, there were more than 300. His figures showed the creation, Adam and Evein the Garden of Eden, and the Great Flood.

The painted area is about 40 m (131 ft) long by 13 m (43 ft) wide. This means that Michelangelo painted well over 5,000 square feet (460 m2) of frescoes.[26]

Last Judgement

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Michelangelo’s The Last Judgement.
 The Last Judgment (Michelangelo)

The Last Judgement was painted by Michelangelo from 1535 to 1541, between two important historic events, the Sack of Rome by mercenary forces of the Holy Roman Empire in 1527 and the Council of Trent which commenced in 1545. The work was designed on a grand scale, and spans the entire wall behind the altar of the Sistine Chapel. The painting depicts the second coming of Christ on the Day of Judgment as described in the Revelation of John, Chapter 20. High on the wall is the heroic figure of Christ, with the saints clustered in groups around him. At the bottom left of the painting the dead are raised from their graves and ascend to be judged. To the right are those who are assigned to Hell and are dragged down by demons.

The Last Judgement was an object of a bitter dispute between Cardinal Carafa and Michelangelo. Because he depicted naked figures, the artist was accused of immorality and obscenity. A censorship campaign (known as the « Fig-Leaf Campaign ») was organized by Carafa and Monsignor Sernini (Mantua‘s ambassador) to remove the frescoes.

The Pope’s Master of Ceremonies Biagio da Cesena said « it was most disgraceful that in so sacred a place there should have been depicted all those nude figures, exposing themselves so shamefully, and that it was no work for a papal chapel but rather for the public baths and taverns, »[27] In response Michelangelo worked da Cesena’s semblance into the scene as Minos, judge of the underworld. It is said that when he complained to the Pope, the pontiff responded that his jurisdiction did not extend to hell, so the portrait would have to remain. Michelangelo also painted his own portrait, on the flayed skin held by St Bartholomew.

The genitalia in the fresco were later covered by the artist Daniele da Volterra, whom history remembers by the derogatory nickname « Il Braghettone » (« the breeches-painter »).

Restoration and controversy

Main article: Restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes

The Sistine Chapel’s ceiling restoration began on 7 November 1984. The restoration complete, the chapel was re-opened to the public on 8 April 1994. The part of the restoration in the Sistine Chapel that has caused the most concern is the ceiling, painted by Michelangelo. The emergence of the brightly coloured Ancestors of Christ from the gloom sparked a reaction of fear that the processes being employed in the cleaning were too severe and removed the original intent of the artist.

Daniel, before and after restoration.

The problem lies in the analysis and understanding of the techniques utilised by Michelangelo, and the technical response of the restorers to that understanding. A close examination of the frescoes of the lunettes convinced the restorers that Michelangelo worked exclusively in « buon fresco« ; that is, the artist worked only on freshly laid plaster and each section of work was completed while the plaster was still in its fresh state. In other words, Michelangelo did not work « a secco« ; he did not come back later and add details onto the dry plaster.

The restorers, by assuming that the artist took a universal approach to the painting, have taken a universal approach to the restoration. A decision was made that all of the shadowy layer of animal glue and « lamp black », all of the wax, and all of the overpainted areas were contamination of one sort or another: smoke deposits, earlier restoration attempts, and painted definition by later restorers in an attempt to enliven the appearance of the work. Based on this decision, according to Arguimbau’s critical reading of the restoration data that have been provided, the chemists of the restoration team decided upon a solvent that would effectively strip the ceiling down to its paint-impregnated plaster. After treatment, only that which was painted « buon fresco » would remain.[citation needed]

Replicas

The only reproduction of the Sistine Chapel ceiling was painted by Gary Bevans at a church in Goring-by-Sea, West Sussex, England.[28] A full-size architectural and photographic replica of the entire building was commissioned by the Mexican Government and funded by private donors.[29] It was on view at Mexico City from June 1 to July 15, 2016; it may then be exhibited at other Mexican cities and possibly elsewhere in the world. It took 2.6 million high definition photographs to reproduce the totality of the frescoes and tapestries.[30] A video of the history of the Chapel is shown to the visitors before entering the building; inside, a light-and-sound demonstration explains the content of each of the frescoes.

Quotes on Michelangelo’s frescoes in the Sistine Chapel

« Without having seen the Sistine Chapel one can form no appreciable idea of what one man is capable of achieving. »

— Johann Wolfgang Goethe, 23 August 1787, [31]

« This work has been and truly is a beacon of our art, and it has brought such benefit and enlightenment to the art of painting that it was sufficient to illuminate a world which for so many hundreds of years had remained in the state of darkness. And, to tell the truth, anyone who is a painter no longer needs to concern himself about seeing innovations and inventions, new ways of painting poses, clothing on figures, and various awe-inspiring details, for Michelangelo gave to this work all the perfection that can be given to such details. »

— Giorgio Vasari on Michelangelo’s frescoes in the Sistine Chapel

References

Citations
  1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Ekelund, Hébert & Tollison 2006, p. 313
  2. Jump up^ Vatican City, Whc.unesco.org, retrieved 9 August 2011
  3. Jump up^ Pietrangeli 1986, p. 28
  4. Jump up^ Monfasani, John (1983), « A Description of the Sistine Chapel under Pope Sixtus IV », Artibus et Historiae, IRSA s.c., 4 (7): 9–18, doi:10.2307/1483178, ISSN 0391-9064, JSTOR 1483178.
  5. Jump up^ Gardner, Helen (1970) Art through the Ages, p. 469, Harcourt, Brace and World. ISBN 978-0-15-508315-8
  6. Jump up^ Robert Coughlan, The World of Michelangelo, Time-Life International, (1966) p. 116
  7. Jump up^ Robert Coughlan, p. 127
  8. Jump up^ Pietrangeli 1986, p. 24
  9. ^ Jump up to:a b c John Shearman, « The Chapel of Sixtus IV ». In Pietrangeli 1986
  10. Jump up^ « The Sistine Chapel », Vatican Museums, retrieved 9 August 2013
  11. Jump up^ Stevens, Abel & Floy, James. « Allegri’s Miserere ». The National Magazine, Carlton & Phillip, 1854. 531.
  12. Jump up^ Saunders, Fr. William P. « The Path to the Papacy« . Arlington Catholic Herald, 17 March 2005. Retrieved on 2 June 2008.
  13. Jump up^ Chambers, D. S. (1978), « Papal Conclaves and Prophetic Mystery in the Sistine Chapel », Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, The Warburg Institute, 41: 322–326, doi:10.2307/750878, JSTOR 750878.
  14. Jump up^ « Interesting Conclave Facts ». ewtn.com.
  15. Jump up^ Campbell, Ian (1981), « The New St Peter’s: Basilica or Temple? » (PDF), Oxford Art Journal, 4 (1): 3–8, doi:10.1093/oxartj/4.1.3, ISSN 0142-6540, archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2015.
  16. Jump up^ Hersey 1993, p. 180
  17. Jump up^ Talvacchia 2007, p. 150
  18. Jump up^ Talvacchia 2007, p. 152
  19. Jump up^ Cheney, Iris. Review of « Raphael’s Cartoons in the Collection of Her Majesty The Queen and the Tapestries for the Sistine Chapel » by John Shearman ». The Art Bulletin, Volume 56, No. 4, December 1974. 607–609.
  20. Jump up^ Oliveira, Paulo Martins « The Sistine Chapel and the two Testaments« , 2013, (online, academia.edu)
  21. Jump up^ Graham-Dixon 2008, p. 2
  22. Jump up^ Stollhans, Cynthia (1988), « Michelangelo’s Nude Saint Catherine of Alexandria », Woman’s Art Journal, Woman’s Art, Inc., 19 (1): 26–30, doi:10.2307/1358651, ISSN 0270-7993, JSTOR 1358651.
  23. Jump up^ Graham-Dixon 2008, p. 1
  24. Jump up^ Graham-Dixon 2008, p. xii
  25. Jump up^ 7 Things You May Not Know About the Sistine Chapel
  26. Jump up^ Michelangelo – The Sistine Chapel Ceiling, « Seven Common Questions About the Frescoes »
  27. Jump up^ Vasari 1987, p. 379
  28. Jump up^ Welcome to The Sistine Chapel Reproduction United Kingdom
  29. Jump up^ Vatican Approves $2.4 Million Replica of Sistine Chapel in Mexico City
  30. Jump up^ Full-size replica of Vatican’s Sistine Chapel opens in Mexico City
  31. Jump up^ Letter. Original: (in German) Ich kann euch nicht ausdrücken, wie sehr ich euch zu mir gewünscht habe, damit ihr nur einen Begriff hättet, was ein einziger und ganzer Mensch machen und ausrichten kann; ohne die Sixtinische Kapelle gesehen zu haben, kann man sich keinen anschauenden Begriff machen, was ein Mensch vermag. Italian Journey, 2nd journey to Rome.Italienische Reise, Teil 21
Bibliography
  • Deimling, Barbara (2000), Sandro Botticelli 1444/45–1510, Köln: Taschen, ISBN 3-8228-5992-3
  • Earls, Irene (1987), Renaissance Art: A Topical Dictionary, Westport: Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-24658-0
  • Ekelund, Robert B.; Hébert, Robert F.; Tollison, Robert D. (2006), The Marketplace of Christianity, Cambridge: MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-05082-X
  • Graham-Dixon, Andrew (2008), Michelangelo and the Sistine Chapel, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-85365-1
  • Hersey, George (1993), High Renaissance Art in St. Peter’s and the Vatican, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-32782-5
  • Michelangelo (1999), Bull, George, ed., Michelangelo, Life, Letters, and Poetry, Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-283770-2
  • Pietrangeli, Carlo, ed. (1986), The Sistine Chapel, New York: Harmony Books, ISBN 0-517-56274-X
  • Seymour, Charles (1972), Michelangelo, the Sistine Chapel Ceiling: illustrations, introductory essays, backgrounds and sources, critical essay, New York: W. W. Norton, ISBN 0-393-04319-3
  • Stinger, Charles (1998), The Renaissance in Rome, Bloomington: Indianapolis, ISBN 0-253-21208-1
  • Talvacchia, Bette (2007), Raphael, Oxford Oxfordshire: Phaidon Press, ISBN 978-0-7148-4786-3
  • Vasari, Giorgio (1987), The Lives of the Artists, George Bull, New York: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-044500-5
  • Wright, Lawrence (1983), Perspective in Perspective, London: Routledge & K. Paul, ISBN 0-7100-0791-4

Further reading

  • Ettlinger, Leopold (1965), The Sistine Chapel before Michelangelo: Religious Imagery and Papal Primacy, Oxford: Clarendon Press, OCLC 230168041
  • King, Ross (2003), Michelangelo & the Pope’s Ceiling, New York: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-200369-7
  • Lewine, Carol (1993), The Sistine Chapel Walls and the Roman Liturgy, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, ISBN 0-271-00792-3
  • Hirst, Michael; Colalucci, Gianluigi; Mancinelli, Fabrizio; Shearman, John; Winner, Matthias; Maeder, Edward; De Vecchi, Pierluigi; Nazzareno, Gabrielli; et al. (1994), Pietrangeli, Carlo, ed., The Sistine Chapel: A Glorious Restoration, Takashi Okamura (photographer), New York: H.N. Abrams, ISBN 0-8109-3840-5
  • Pfeiffer, Heinrich (2007), Die Sixtinische Kapelle neu entdeckt (in German), Stuttgart: Belser, ISBN 978-0-8109-3840-3
  • Stone, Irving (2004), The Agony and the Ecstasy, London: Nal Trade, ISBN 0-451-21323-8. Previously publish by Doubleday in 1961; a novel.
  • Blech, Benjamin; Doliner, Roy (2008), The Sistine Secrets: Michelangelo’s Forbidden Messages in the Heart of the Vatican, New York: HarperOne, ISBN 978-0-06-146904-6
  • The Vatican: spirit and art of Christian Rome. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1982. ISBN 0-87099-348-8.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistine_Chapel

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 26 janvier 2018
Publié dans: A history of architecture in Italy from the time of Constantine to the dawn of the renaissance Year: 1901 (1900s) Authors: Cummings, Charles Amos, 1833-1905 Subjects: Architecture Publisher: Boston, N, art, art byzantine, art roman, baptistère des Orthodoxes ou Baptistère de Néon, à Ravenneen Italie, est le plus ancien édifice de cette ville. Ce nom le distingue du baptistère des Ariens, également à Ravenne, construit, Baptistery of Neon (Italian: Battistero Neoniano) is a religious building in Ravenna, central Italy. The most ancient monument remaining in the city, it was partly erected on the site of a Roman bath., Baptistry_of_Neon_(Ravenna, ceiling mosaic in the Baptistry of Neon, Italie Émilie-Romagne Ville Ravenne, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York byzantine art, Pierluigi De Vecchi ed Elda Cerchiari, I tempi dell'arte, volume 1, Bompiani, Milano, Senza categoria, Weitzmann, Kurt, ed., Age of spirituality: late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century, no. 588, 1979, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 尼安洗礼堂[编辑] 维基百科，自由的百科全书. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

File:A history of architecture in Italy from the time of Constantine to the dawn of the renaissance (1901) (14597412758).jpg

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

 

Baptistère des Orthodoxes

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon
Image illustrative de l'article Baptistère des Orthodoxes

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

Matthias Holländer

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon
Présentation
Nom local Battistero Neoniano
Culte Catholique romain
Type Baptistère
Début de la construction vers 400
Fin des travaux 450
Style dominant Byzantin
Protection patrimoine mondial de l’UNESCOen 1996
Site web www.ravennamosaici.it [archive]Voir et modifier les données sur Wikidata
Géographie
Pays Drapeau de l'Italie Italie
Région Émilie-Romagne
Ville Ravenne

Géolocalisation sur la carte : Italie

(Voir situation sur carte : Italie)

Baptistère des Orthodoxes

Le baptistère des Orthodoxes ou Baptistère de Néon, à Ravenneen Italie, est le plus ancien édifice de cette ville. Ce nom le distingue du baptistère des Ariens, également à Ravenne, construit par le roi des Ostrogoths, Théodoric l’Amale. Les deux édifices, dont la destination est identique, étaient propres aux deux communautés chrétiennes qui coexistaient alors à Ravenne.

Cet édifice paléochrétien est connu pour avoir conservé la plus grande partie de son décor intérieur datant du ve siècle (Bas Empire romain), dont des marqueteries de marbres (opus sectile), des stucs, des fresques, mais surtout un superbe ensemble de mosaïques.

Il est inscrit, avec d’autres monuments de Ravenne, sur la liste du patrimoine mondial de l’Unesco.

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

Intérieur du baptistère, cuve monumentale au premier plan

Histoire

Le baptistère fut construit par l’évêque Ursus à la fin du ive ou au début du ve siècle, comme bâtiment annexe d’une grande basilique, détruite en 1734. Il fut terminé par l’évêque Néon, vers la fin du ve siècle ; c’est de cette époque que date la décoration de mosaïques. Le pavement du bâtiment est à présent à 3 mètres au-dessous du niveau du sol, ce qui change l’aspect visible du monument.

Description

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

Vue de l’élévation intérieure avec les mosaïques

Le plan est octogonal, comme au baptistère du Latran à Rome, plan qu’on retrouve pour de nombreux édifices paléochrétiens puis plus tard pour des monuments byzantins (comme la basilique Saint-Vital dans la même ville) ou d’inspiration byzantine (comme le Dôme du Rocher à Jérusalem). Il a une signification symbolique : il figure les sept jours de la semaine (et de la Création du monde) plus le jour de la Résurrection et de la Vie Éternelle.

L’édifice a été remanié au xe ou xie siècle par l’ajout de quatre petites absidioles, faisant disparaitre une partie des opus sectile. Il y a un contraste important entre la richesse de l’intérieur du bâtiment et la sobriété épurée du parement en brique de l’extérieur, ce qui est fréquent dans l’art paléochrétien et en particulier à Ravenne. Ce baptistère dégage une aura particulière due à son architecture monumentale. Les trois arcs (symbole de la Trinité) reposant sur des colonnes comme fermeture pour les fenêtres de l’intérieur ne se distinguent pas de l’extérieur.

Le baptistère possède en son centre des fonts baptismaux, constitués par une vasque monumentale et octogonale en marbre pour baptiser les fidèles par immersion presque totale.

Mosaïques

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

Mosaïque de la coupole.

Le centre de la coupole est occupé par une mosaïque qui représente le baptême du Christ dans les eaux du Jourdainpar saint Jean-Baptiste. Ainsi le fidèle peut identifier son baptême à celui du Christ. On remarque dans cette scène une allégorie curieusement païenne du Jourdain.

Plus bas et entourant la scène du baptême du Christ est représentée une procession des douze apôtres derrière saint Pierre et saint Paul avec une sorte de hiérarchie :

  • premier niveau : la cuve du baptême où le fidèle est baptisé,
  • deuxième niveau : bas-reliefs représentant des prophètes avec des codex en main,
  • troisième niveau : les douze apôtres,
  • quatrième niveau: le Christ et la colombe du Saint-Esprit.

Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

  • Vue partielle des trois niveaux.

    Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

     

  • Au premier niveau: marqueterie de marbre (à gauche), chapiteau, mosaïque.

    Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

     

  • Premier niveau, un des personnages dans le décor de rinceauxd’or

    Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

     

  • Les mosaïques de la coupole.

    Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

     

  • Détail du bas de la coupole.

    Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

     

  • Quelques-uns des douze apôtres sur la coupole

    Giacobbe Giusti, Baptistère de Néon

     

  • Sommet de la coupole: le baptême du Christ avec la colombe du Saint Esprit.

     

     

Baptistery of Neon (Italian: Battistero Neoniano) is a religious building in Ravenna, central Italy. The most ancient monument remaining in the city, it was partly erected on the site of a Roman bath. It is also called the Orthodox Baptistery to distinguish it from the Arian Baptistery constructed on behest of Ostrogothic King Theodoric some 50 years later.

The octagonal brick structure was erected by Bishop Ursus at the end of the 4th or beginning of the 5th century, as part of his great Basilica (destroyed in 1734). The baptistery was finished by Bishop Neon at the end of the 5th century, at which time the mosaic decorations were added. The original floor is now some 3 meters underground, so the proper structure and extent of the building can no longer be seen. The octagonal design of the building, employed in virtually all Early Christian baptisteries, symbolizes the seven days of the week plus the Day of the Resurrection and Eternal Life.

The ceiling mosaic depicts John the Baptist baptizing Jesus (depicted with beard) standing waist high in the Jordan River. To one side stands the personification of the Jordan river, with a reed in one hand and a garment in the other. A procession of the twelve apostles proceeds around the center mosaic in two directions, ending with Saint Peter meeting Saint Paul.

The ceiling mosaic in the Baptistry of Neon
The Baptistry is one of the eight structures in Ravenna registered as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. According to the ICOMOS evaluation of this patrimony, « this is the finest and most complete surviving example of the early Christian baptistery » which « retains the fluidity in representation of the human figure derived from Greco-Roman art »

Further reading

 

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Baptistry_of_Neon_(Ravenna)?uselang=it

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 19 janvier 2018
Publié dans: "The Lake of Idols, , The archaeological area of Pieve a Socana (Tuscany - Italy) (PDF), Vienna: Museen der Stadt Wien – Stadtarchäologi, Arezzo, Tuscany, Italy, art, art occidental, art Toscane, Étrusques, Étrusques italie, Boston Museum, etruria, Etruria, Cisalpine Gaul, and Umbria, Ferrini, Alessandro, Arrivo al Lago degli Idoli [Arriving at the Lake of the Idols], Foreste_Casentinesi,_Monte_Falterona,_Campigna_National_Park, Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA, Hercle, the Etruscan version of Greek divine hero, Heracles, Hermitage, Hermitage_Museum, Il lago sacro: "Passava da questo zona una importante viabilità che collegava l'Etruria toscana e umbra alle zone dell'attuale Romagna, Lago degli Idoli, Lago della Ciliegeta (eng. Cherry Grove Lake), named for the cherry groves that grew around the lake.[4] The name Lago degli Idoli (eng. Lake of the Idols), Lake of Idols is about 1380 metres above sea level on the southern slope of Monte Falterona, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA, Marie-Bénédicte, Astier, Lago degli Idoli, Louvre Museum, Meyers, Gretchen E. (1 January 2008), "Review of M. Ducci, ed., Santuari Etruschi in Casentino", Etruscan Studies: Journal of the Etruscan Foundation, University of Massachusetts Amherst,, monte falterona, Museums of Berlin, national park in Italy, Senza categoria, The Etruscans, votive offering of Hercle of Greek manufacture. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Risultati immagini per monte falterona british museum

Tuscany, Monte Falterona, Bronze statue depicting warrior. Etruscan civilization V century b.C.

London, British Museum

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Risultati immagini per monte falterona louvre

Risultati immagini per monte falterona louvre

Kouros in bronze, from Monte Falterona

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Monte Falco.jpg

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Luci_e_ombre_in_foresta___M._Vianelli_-2.jpg

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Risultati immagini per monte falterona
Lake of the Idols
Lago degli IdoliGiacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA
IMG 0078 Lago degli idoli.JPG

Lake of the Idols following restoration

Lake of the Idols is located in Italy

Lake of the Idols
Lake of the Idols
Location in Italy
Location Arezzo, Tuscany, Italy
Basin countries Italy
Surface elevation 1,380 m (4,530 ft)

Lake of the Idols (Italian: Lago degli Idoli) is a lake located in Arezzo Province, Tuscany, Italy. It is located 1,380 metres (4,530 ft) above sea level atop Monte Falterona, about 600 metres from the source of the river Arno.[1] Situated near an ancient road linking Etruria (including Tuscany and Umbria) with the Adriatic port cities of Romagna,[2] it is known for one of the largest archaeological finds of the Etruscan civilization; over 600 bronze statuettes of Etruscan and Roman origin, along with thousands of other figurines from Cisalpine Gaul and Umbria, were discovered within the lake.[3]

Name

The lake was originally known as Lago della Ciliegeta (eng. Cherry Grove Lake), named for the cherrygroves that grew around the lake.[4] The name Lago degli Idoli (eng. Lake of the Idols) was applied after 1838 and refers to the Etruscan bronze statuettes found in the lake (see History). Another name for the lake is Buca del Tesoro (eng. Treasure Hole).[5]

History

According to Alfredo Bresciani, the lake formed approximately 6,000 years ago (4th millennia BCE), based on radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology testing done on the lake.[6]

The lake was used in ancient times by the Etruscans. They viewed it as a « holy spring of the river-gods » because of the healing qualities of the water, which contains a high concentration of tannin.[7] The Etruscans would throw bronze statuettes into the lake as a form of votive offering. These statuettes depicted typically people or animals.[8] Some artifacts in the lake depicted body parts, such as heads, arms and legs,[9] suggesting the healing power of the lake. Other artifacts found at the lake were coins (including Etruscan aes rude), and fragments of arrow bits and pottery.[10]It is believed that the lake was popular among soldiers based on the number of arrow fragments, and more importantly, the number of statuettes found depicting Hercle, the Etruscan version of Greek divine hero, Heracles.[11] Artifacts found at the lake are dated between mid-6th to late-4th centuries BCE.[12]

One of these statuettes was discovered by a local shepherdess in May 1838.[13] The statuette was probably of Hercle, now kept in the British Museum.[14][15] News of the find spread quickly, and a team of local amateur archaeologists from nearby Stia[16]began excavating the site in June 1838.[13] The lake was subsequently dried following several days of fruitful excavations.[17] Over 600 statuettes and thousands of other artifacts were discovered between 1838–1839.[13] Many of these artifacts at the time were presented to the Archaeological Institute of Rome in 1842, but without any buyers. Ultimately they were sold to a private collector, who resold them to a number of museums, notably among them the British Museum,[18] the Hermitage Museum and the Louvre.[19] Over time, treasure seekers looted the lake, stripping it of whatever artifacts remained within.[20]

Official excavations were sparse following the 1838–1839 excavations. The next excavation, in 1972, led to the discovery of three artifacts within the lake.[21]Previously, in 1971, five artifacts in the form of bronze statuettes were accidentally recovered from the site.[22]

The last significant excavation of the lake was done in 2003. Eight trenches were dug into the lake center.[23] Within the trenches, among the artifacts found were bronze statuettes, fragments of bronze weaponry, « two pieces of gold foil shaped into bull-headed protomes » and « two polychromebeads« .[24] « In addition to the objects named above, other finds include nails, spear points, ceramics (including an intact bucchero grigio miniature cup), arrows and aes rude. » These artifacts were mostly dated between the 6th–5th centuries BCE.[25]

Following the 2003 excavations, local authorities began rehabilitating the lake. In 2007, the lake was refilled using water from a nearby spring.[26] Vegetation surrounding the lake was replanted to mimic its original form during the Etruscan period, using pollen samples recovered from the surrounding layers of earth.[27]

Hydrology

The lake is widely perceived to be a pond, due to lack of inflow from any bodies of water, i.e. rivers and streams. Research done at the University of Florence – Faculty of Engineering suggests that there exists an underground spring that provides a continuous stream of water to the lake.[28] It appears that the lake is sinkhole-like, sitting atop layers of sandstone.[29]

Cultural impact

The lake and its history was heavily incorporated into the plot of the 2013 film Neverlake.[30][31]

References

  1. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « The Lake of Idols is about 1380 metres above sea level on the southern slope of Monte Falterona (1654 metres) near to the sources of the Arno, approximately 600 metres more to the north-west (1358 metres). »
  2. Jump up^ Il lago sacro: « Passava da questo zona una importante viabilità che collegava l’Etruria toscana e umbra alle zone dell’attuale Romagna e relativi porti adriatici (viabilità utilizzata anche in epoca romana e per tutto il medioevo. »
  3. Jump up^ Caselli 2004, pp. 78–79: « Well in excess of 600 Etruscan and Roman bronze figurines, up to 60 cm in height, were found buried in the mud, together with thousands of other artifacts, coming from a wide area of Etruria, Cisalpine Gaul, and Umbria. »
  4. Jump up^ Ferrini & Arrivo al Lago degli Idoli: « Eccoci al Lago degli Idoli, fino al 1838 Lago della Ciliegeta per le molte piante di ciliegio che qui erano presenti. »
  5. Jump up^ Caselli 2004, p. 78: « Proceeding due south for about 1 km, a little above our path, we should be able to find the little, now refilled, basin of the famous Lago degli Idoli (Lake of the Idols), once known as Buca del Tesoro (the Treasure Hole) or Lago delle Ciliegeta (the Cherry Grove Lake). »
  6. Jump up^ Meyers 2008: « The volume includes an interesting archaeological discussion by Alfredo Bresciani on Carbon-14 dating and dendochronology, which have been used to determine that the lake formed naturally c. 6000 years ago »
  7. Jump up^ Caselli 2004, p. 79: « People gathered at the pond which they regarded as the holy spring of the river-gods embracing the country of Etruria. The waters of the pond, containing a high quantity of tannin, were also a strong disinfectant […] »
  8. Jump up^ Salsini: For centuries, people in the area believed that if an earthquake awakened the god, they would all be drowned. The Etruscans, in fact, threw thousands of small bronze statues, depicting people and animals, into a lake, called Lake of the Idols, to keep the god happy.
  9. Jump up^ Marie-Bénédicte: « […] nearly 2,000 fragments of weapons and of depictions of the human body (heads, trunks, arms, legs, etc.); and a few coins. »
  10. Jump up^ Ferrini & Il lago sacro: « Tra il 1838 e 39 furono portati alla luce migliaia di reperti tra cui oltre seicento bronzetti, un migliaio di Aes Rude (la prima monetazione etrusca), circa 2000 punte da freccia e molti frammenti di ceramica. »
  11. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « This is highlighted by the existence in the votive offering of Hercle of Greek manufacture. It can be hypothesized that this offering was mainly associated with « soldiers » both on account of the statuette of Hercle (god connected to heroism and also to war) and that of the Warrior, not to mention the huge quantity of arrows. »
  12. Jump up^ Pancani & Tocchi 2012, p. 2: « The finds dated from the middle of the VI and the late IV century BC […] »
  13. ^ Jump up to:a b c Pancani & Tocchi 2012, p. 2: « The Lake of Idols was discovered by chance in May 1838, the accidental discovery of a bronze statue of Heracles was followed by more in-depth investigations in the area and the excavations, which began in June of the same year, brought to light more than 600 figurines and thousands of other artifacts. »
  14. Jump up^ Perhaps this one
  15. Jump up^ Ferrini & Un lago sacro: « Casualmente in quell’anno una mandriana rinvenne sulla sponda del lago una statuetta bronzea raffigurante Eracle (oggi conservata nel British Museum di Londra). »
  16. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « In Stia, a company was formed by a group of local amateurs, who started a dig (1838-‘39).
  17. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « A few days later, due to the formidable amount of excavated material, it was decided to dry the lake. »
  18. Jump up^ 8 pieces in the British Museum
  19. Jump up^ Caselli 2004, p. 79: « In 1842, secretary E. Braun, presented the finds to scholars in the hall of the Archaeological Institute of Rome. Since no public authority considered buying any of the finds, they were at once sold to a private buyer who, in his turn, sold them to various museums including the Museums of Berlin, the British Museum, the Louvre, the Boston Museum and the Hermitage. »
  20. Jump up^ Caselli 2004, p. 79: « The extensive excavations, carried out from the summer of 2003 on-wards, demonstrated that the basin had been all but cleared of every possible interesting relic by generations of treasure hunters. »
  21. Jump up^ Meyers 2008, pp. 175–176: « In 1972 three new bronze pieces were found at the same site, inspiring further excavation in the area.
  22. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « In 1971, five statuettes were found by chance. »
  23. Jump up^ Meyers 2008, p. 176: « Following the history and catalog of earlier excavations at the site of the Lago degli Idoli, Fedeli provides a brief account of the 2003 campaign. Based on information from the earlier work on the site, eight trenches were opened in the center of the ancient basin.
  24. Jump up^ Meyers 2008, p. 176: « Several trenches yielded substantial deposits of archaeological finds—one in particular producing bronze votive statuettes, bronze heads, fragments of bronze weapons, two pieces of gold foil shaped into bull-headed protomes and two polychrome beads. »
  25. Jump up^ Meyers 2008, p. 176: « Most of the finds are datable to sixth-fifth centuries B.C.[…] »
  26. Jump up^ Ferrini & Il lago sacro: « Ultimati gli ultimi scavi, a fine 2007 la conca è stata riempita con l’acqua di una vicina sorgente. »
  27. Jump up^ Caselli, p. 78: « The local authority and the Park authority have now refilled the anciend[sic] lake bed and are now replanting the origi-nal vegetation of the Etruscan period, as has been extrapolated by studying the pollen in the va-rious excavation layers. »
  28. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « As to the widely debated origin of the lake, a hypothesis was recently formulated by a team of researchers and scholars of the Engineering Faculty of Florence University. Research, analyses and hydrogeological studies revealed that the lake originated from an underground spring capable of keeping up a constant flow of water.
  29. Jump up^ InEtruria.it: « From research conducted, it turns out that the rocks in which the lake formed consist of layers of sandstone belonging to a « pseudo-doline ». »
  30. Jump up^ Keats-Shelley House 2013: « Paoletti chose a place full of charm and mystery, ‘The Lake of the Idols’, a Tuscan location renowned for many discoveries of ancient Etruscan artifacts in its depths. »
  31. Jump up^ Hough 2014: « The setting is the historic « Lake of the Idols, » which was beheld by ancient Etruscans as a place of healing and mysticism. It was believed that one could escape sickness by tossing objects into the center of the waters, and for thousands of years, artifacts have been discovered at the lake. »

Sources

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

British Museum from NE 2.JPG

British Museum

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Spb 06-2012 Palace Embankment various 14.jpg

Hermitage Museum

Giacobbe Giusti, Lake of the Idols, MONTE FALTERONA

Le Louvre - Aile Richelieu.jpg

Louvre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_of_the_Idols

Giacobbe Giusti, MONTE FALTERONA, ‘IL LAGO DEGLI IDOLI’

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitage_Museum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Falterona

http://www.toscana.beniculturali.it/articoli/acque-sacre-culto-etrusco-sullappennino-toscano

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreste_Casentinesi,_Monte_Falterona,_Campigna_National_Park