Sol Invictus (« Unconquered Sun ») was the official sun godof the later Roman Empireand a patron of soldiers. On 25 December 274 AD the Roman emperor Aurelianmade it an official cultalongside the traditional Roman cults.[2] Scholars disagree about whether the new deity was a refoundation of the ancient Latin cult of Sol,[3] a revival of the cult of Elagabalus,[4] or completely new.[5] The god was favored by emperors after Aurelian and appeared on their coins until Constantine I.[6] The last inscription referring to Sol Invictus dates to AD 387,[7] and there were enough devotees in the fifth century that the Christian theologian Augustine found it necessary to preach against them.[8]
Invictus as epithet
Giacobbe Giusti, Sol Invictus, Roman empire
Invictus(« unconquered, invincible ») was an epithet utilized for several Roman deities, including Jupiter, Mars, Hercules, Apollo, and Silvanus.[10] It had been in use from the 3rd century BC.[11] The Roman cult to Sol is continuous from the « earliest history » of the city until the institution of Christianity as the exclusive state religion. Scholars have sometimes regarded the traditional Sol and Sol Invictus as two separate deities, but the rejection of this view by S. E. Hijmans has found supporters.[12]
An inscription of AD 102 records a restoration of a portico of Sol in what is now the Trastevere area of Rome by a certain Gaius Iulius Anicetus.[13] While he may perhaps have had in mind an allusion to his own cognomen, which is the Latinized form of the Greek equivalent of invictus, ἀνίκητος (aniketos),[14] the earliest extant dated inscription that uses invictus as an epithet of Sol is from AD 158.[15] Another, stylistically dated to the 2nd century, is inscribed on a Roman phalera(ornamental disk): inventori lucis soli invicto augusto (« to the contriver of light, sol invictus augustus »).[dubious – discuss][16][17] Augustus is a regular epithet linking deities to the Imperial cult.[citation needed]
Sol Invictus played a prominent role in the Mithraic mysteries, and was equated with Mithras.[18][19][20] The relation of the Mithraic Sol Invictus to the public cult of the deity with the same name is unclear and perhaps non-existent.[21]
Elagabalus
According to the Historia Augusta, Elagabalus, the teenaged Severan heir, adopted the name of his deity and brought his cult image from Emesa to Rome. Once installed as emperor, he neglected Rome’s traditional State deities and promoted his own as Rome’s most powerful deity. This ended with his murder in 222. The Historia Augusta refers to the deity Elagabalus as « also called Jupiter and Sol » (fuit autem Heliogabali vel Iovis vel Solis).[22] While this has been seen as an attempt to import the Syrian sun god to Rome,[23] the Roman cult of Sol had existed in Rome in the earlier Republic.[24]
Aurelian
The Roman gens Aurelia was associated with the cult of Sol.[25] After his victories in the East, the Emperor Aurelian thoroughly reformed the Roman cult of Sol, elevating the sun-god to one of the premier divinities of the Empire. Where previously priests of Sol had been simply sacerdotes and tended to belong to lower ranks of Roman society,[26] they were now pontifices and members of the new college of pontifices instituted by Aurelian. Every pontifex of Sol was a member of the senatorial elite, indicating that the priesthood of Sol was now highly prestigious. Almost all these senators held other priesthoods as well, however, and some of these other priesthoods take precedence in the inscriptions in which they are listed, suggesting that they were considered more prestigious than the priesthood of Sol.[27] Aurelian also built a new temple for Sol, which was dedicated on December 25, 274,[2] and brought the total number of temples for the god in Rome to (at least) four.[28] He also instituted games in honor of the sun god, held every four years from a.d. 274 onwards.
The identity of Aurelian’s Sol Invictus has long been a subject of scholarly debate. Based on the Augustan History, some scholars have argued that it was based on Sol Elagablus (or Elagabla) of Emesa. Others, basing their argument on Zosimus, suggest that it was based on the Šams, the solar god of Palmyra on the grounds that Aurelian placed and consecrated a cult statue of the sun god looted from Palmyra in the temple of Sol Invictus.[29] Professor Gary Forsythe discusses these arguments and adds a third more recent one based on the work of Steven Hijmans. Hijmans argues that Aurelian’s solar deity was simply the traditional Greco-Roman Sol Invictus.[30]
Constantine
Coin of Emperor Constantine Idepicting Sol Invictus with the legend SOLI INVICTO COMITI, c. 315
Emperors portrayed Sol Invictus on their official coinage, with a wide range of legends, only a few of which incorporated the epithet invictus, such as the legend SOLI INVICTO COMITI, claiming the Unconquered Sun as a companion to the Emperor, used with particular frequency by Constantine.[31] Statuettes of Sol Invictus, carried by the standard-bearers, appear in three places in reliefs on the Arch of Constantine. Constantine’s official coinage continues to bear images of Sol until 325/6. A solidus of Constantine as well as a gold medallion from his reign depict the Emperor’s bust in profile twinned (jugate) with Sol Invictus, with the legend INVICTUS CONSTANTINUS[32]
Constantine decreed (March 7, 321) dies Solis—day of the Sun, « Sunday« —as the Roman day of rest (Codex Justinianus 3.12.2):
- On the venerable day of the Sun let the magistrates and people residing in cities rest, and let all workshops be closed. In the country however persons engaged in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their pursuits because it often happens that another day is not suitable for grain-sowing or vine planting; lest by neglecting the proper moment for such operations the bounty of heaven should be lost.[33]
Constantine’s triumphal arch was carefully positioned to align with the colossal statue of Sol by the Colosseum, so that Sol formed the dominant backdrop when seen from the direction of the main approach towards the arch.[34]
Sol and the other Roman Emperors
Berrens[35] deals with coin-evidence of Imperial connection to the Solar cult. Sol is depicted sporadically on imperial coins in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, then more frequently from Septimius Severusonwards until AD 325/6. Sol invictus appears on coin legends from AD 261, well before the reign of Aurelian.[36]
Identical reverse as the coin of Constantine I but with Emperor Liciniuson head
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Coin of Emperor Probus, c. 280, with Sol Invictus riding a quadriga, with legend SOLI INVICTO, « to the Unconquered Sun »: the Emperor (at left) wears a radiated solar crown, worn also by the god on the obverse
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Aurelian in his radiate crown, on a silvered bronze coin struck at Rome, 274–275
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Connections between the imperial radiate crown and the cult of Sol are postulated. Augustus was posthumously depicted with radiate crown, as were living emperors from Nero (after AD 65) to Constantine. Some modern scholarship interprets the imperial radiate crown as a divine, solar association rather than an overt symbol of Sol; Bergmann calls it a pseudo-object designed to disguise the divine and solar connotations that would otherwise be politically controversial[37][38] but there is broad agreement that coin-images showing the imperial radiate crown are stylistically distinct from those of the solar crown of rays; the imperial radiate crown is depicted as a real object rather than as symbolic light.[39] Hijmans argues that the Imperial radiate crown represents the honorary wreath awarded to Augustus, perhaps posthumously, to commemorate his victory at the Battle of Actium; he points out that henceforth, living emperors were depicted with radiate crowns, but state divi were not. To Hijmans this implies the radiate crown of living emperors as a link to Augustus. His successors automatically inherited (or sometimes acquired) the same offices and honours due to Octavian as « saviour of the Republic » through his victory at Actium, piously attributed to Apollo-Helios. Wreaths awarded to victors at the Actian Games were radiate.[40]
Festival of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti
The Philocalian calendar of AD 354 gives a festival of « Natalis Invicti » on 25 December. There is limited evidence that this festival was celebrated before the mid-4th century.[41][42] Whether this date was intended to celebrate solstice is doubtful; one scholar writes that « the cult of the Sun in pagan Rome ironically did not celebrate the winter solstice nor any of the other quarter-tense days, as one might expect. »[43]« .
Since the 12th century[44] there have been speculations that the near-solstice date of 25 December for Christmas was selected because it was the date of the festival of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, but this has been contested by The Calculation Hypothesis through the writings of the Early Christian Fathers. For example, Hippolytus of Rome, between 202 and 211 AD, said in his commentary of the Book of Daniel that the Birth of Jesus is December 25th[45], though this passage is generally considered a late interpolation[by whom?]. The manuscript includes another passage, one that is more likely to be authentic, that gives the passion as March 25.[46]
Legacy
Christianity
According to one hypothesis about Christmas, it was set to 25 December because it was the date of the festival of Sol Invictus. This idea became popular especially in the 18th[47][48] and 19th centuries.[49][50][51]
The charioteer in the mosaic of Mausoleum M has been interpreted by some as Christ. Clement of Alexandria had spoken of Christ driving his chariot across the sky.[52]This interpretation is doubted by others: « Only the cross-shapednimbus makes the Christian significance apparent. »[53] and the figure is seen by some simply as a representation of the Sun with no explicit religious reference whatever, pagan or Christian.
Judaism
Mosaic in the Beth Alphasynagogue, with the Sun in the centre, surrounded by the twelve zodiac constellations and with the four seasons associated inaccurately with the constellations
The traditional image of the Sun has also been used in early Jewish art. A mosaic floor in Hamat Tiberiaspresents David as Helios surrounded by a ring with the signs of the zodiac.[55] As well as in Hamat Tiberias, figures of Helios or Sol Invictus also appear in several of the very few surviving schemes of decoration surviving from Late Antique synagogues, including Beth Alpha, Husefa, all now in Israel, and Naaranin the West Bank. He is shown in floor mosaics, with the usual radiate halo, and sometimes in a quadriga, in the central roundel of a circular representation of the zodiac or the seasons. These combinations « may have represented to an agricultural Jewish community the perpetuation of the annual cycle of the universe or … the central part of a calendar ».[56]
Notes
- Jump up^ « Archived copy ». Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-08-25.
- ^ Jump up to:a b Manfred Clauss, Die römischen Kaiser – 55 historische Portraits von Caesar bis Iustinian, ISBN 978-3-406-47288-6, p. 250
- Jump up^ See S. E. Hijmans, « The sun that did not rise in the east », Babesch 71 (1996) p.115–150
- Jump up^ See Gaston Halsberghe, « The cult of Sol Invictus », Leiden: Brill, 1972
- Jump up^ As Hijmans states (p.115): « Scholars have consistently postulated a clear distinction between the Republican Sol Indiges and the Imperial Sol Invictus. » and p.116 « We should keep in mind, however, that most scholars agree that this cult [Sol Indiges] was never important, and that it had disappeared altogether by the beginning of the second century AD »
- Jump up^ Halsberghe, « The cult of Sol Invictus », p.155: « Up to the conversion of Constantine the Great, the cult of Deus Sol Invictus received the full support of the emperors. The many coins showing the sun god that these emperors struck provide official evidence of this. » and p.169 « the custom of representing Deus Sol Invictus on coins came to an end in AD 323. »
- Jump up^ Halsberghe, « The cult of Sol Invictus », p.170 n.3: « CIL VI, 1778, dates from AD 387, »
- Jump up^ Halsberghe, p.170, n.4: « Augustine, Sermones, XII; also in Ennaratio in Psalmum XXV; Ennaratio II, 3. »
- Jump up^ CIL VI.31181.
- Jump up^ Hijmans, S. E. (2009). « The sun which did not rise in the east », p. 124.
- Jump up^ Hijmans, Steven Ernst. (2009). Sol: The Sun in the Art and Religions of Rome (diss., University of Groningen 2009), p. 18, with citations from the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
- Jump up^ Hijmans (2009, pp. Chapter 1) (a reworking of Hijmans, 1996; Matern, 2001; Wallraff, 2002; and Berrens, 2004; all follow Hijmans.
- Jump up^ (Hijmans 2009, pp. 483–508 (Chapter 5))
- Jump up^ (Hijmans, 2009, 486, footnote 22)
- Jump up^ CIL VI, 715: Soli Invicto deo / ex voto suscepto / accepta missione / honesta ex nume/ro eq(uitum) sing(ularium) Aug(usti) P(ublius) / Aelius Amandus / d(e)d(icavit) Tertullo et / Sacerdoti co(n)s(ulibus)« Archived copy ». Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2009-11-12. (Publius Aelius Amandus dedicated this to the god Sol Invictus in accordance with the vow he had made, upon his honorable discharge from the equestrian guard of the emperor, during the consulship of Tertullus and Sacerdos); see: Campbell, J. (1994). The Roman army, 31 BC–AD 337: a sourcebook, p. 43; Halsberghe 1972, p. 45.[1]
- Jump up^ Guarducci, M. (1957/1959). Sol invictus Augustus. Rendiconti della Pont, 3rd series 30/31, pp. 161 ff. Accademia Romana di Archeologia
- Jump up^ An illustration is provided in Kantorowicz, E. H. (1961). Gods in Uniform, 368–393, 383, fig. 34 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 105(4), (August 1961).
- Jump up^ Ulansey, David. (1989). The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries, p. 107. Oxford University Press.
- Jump up^ Salzman, Michele Renee. (2004). Pagan and Christian Notions of the Week in the 4th Century CE Western Roman Empire In Time and Temporality in the Ancient World, p. 192. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
- Jump up^ Alvar, Jaime, tr. Gordon, Richard (2008). Romanising Oriental Gods: Myth, Salvation, and Ethics in the Cults of Cybele, Isis, and Mithras, p. 100. Brill.
- Jump up^ (Alvar, 2008, p. 203)
- Jump up^ Historia Augusta, 1, 5: English translation (Loeb) from Thayer [2] & Latin text [3]
- Jump up^ See in particular Halsberghe 1972.
- Jump up^ Hijmans 1996, Matern 2001, Wallraff 2002, Berrens 2004, Hijmans (2009)).
- Jump up^ J.C. Richard, « Le culte de Sol et les Aurelii: À propos de Paul Fest. p. 22 L. », in Mélanges offerts à Jacques Heurgon: L’Italie préromaine et la Rome républicaine (Rome, 1976), 915–925.
- Jump up^ (Hijmans 2009, pp. 504–5)
- Jump up^ For a full list of the pontifices of Sol see J. Rupke (ed.), Fasti Sacerdotum (2005), p. 606. Memmius Vitrasius Orfitus lists his priesthoods as pontifex of Vesta, one of the quindecimviri sacris faciundis, and pontifex of Sol, in that order (Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum vol. 6, 1739–1742). In a list of eight priesthoods, Vettius Agorius Praetextatus puts Pontifex Solis in third place (CIL VI, 1779).
- Jump up^ The other three were in the Circus Maximus, on the Quirinal, and in Trastevere. (Hijmans 2009, chapter 5)
- Jump up^ Dirven, Lucinda (1999). The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria. BRILL. p. 169. ISBN 978-9004115897. Archived from the original on 2015-12-08.
- Jump up^ Forsythe, Gary (2012). Time in Roman Religion: One Thousand Years of Religious History. Routledge. pp. 142–143. ISBN 978-0415522175.
- Jump up^ A comprehensive discussion of all sol-coinage and sol-legends per emperor from Septimius Severus to Constantine can be found in Berrens (2004).
- Jump up^ The medal is illustrated in Jocelyn M.C. Toynbee, Roman Medallions(1944, reprinted 1987) plate xvii, no. 11; the solidus is illustrated in J. Maurice, Numismatique Constantinienne vol. II, p. 236, plate vii, no. 14
- Jump up^ Excellent discussion of this decree by Wallraff 2002, 96–102.
- Jump up^ E. Marlowe, « Framing the sun. The Arch of Constantine and the Roman cityscape », Art Bulletin 88 (2006) 223–242.
- Jump up^ S. Berrens, Sonnenkult und Kaisertum von den Severern bis zu Constantin I. (193–337 n. Chr.) Stuttgart: Steiner 2004 (Historia-Einzelschriften 185).
- Jump up^ Berrens 2004, precise p. number to follow. The coinage Elagabalus does not use invictus for Roman Sol, nor the Emesan Solar deity Elagabalus.
- Jump up^ Bergmann 1998, 121–123
- Jump up^ S. Hijmans, « Metaphor, Symbol and Reality: the Polysemy of the Imperial Radiate Crown », in: C. C. Mattusch (ed.), Common ground. Archaeology, art, science, and humanities. Proceedings of the XVIth International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Boston, August 23–26, 2003, Oxford (2006), 440–443; (Hijmans 2009, pp. 80–84, 509–548)
- Jump up^ Bergmann 1998, 116–117; Hijmans 2009, 82–83.
- Jump up^ Hijmans 2009, 509–548. A mosaic floor in the Baths of the Porta Marina at Ostia depicts a radiate victory crown on a table as well as a victorious competitor wearing one.« Archived copy ». Archived from the original on 2008-11-09. Retrieved 2009-11-12.
- Jump up^ Wallraff 2001: 174–177. Hoey (1939: 480) writes: « An inscription of unique interest from the reign of Licinius embodies the official prescription for the annual celebration by his army of a festival of Sol Invictus on December 19 ». The inscription (Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 8940) actually prescribes an annual offering to Sol on November 18 (die XIV Kal(endis) Decemb(ribus), i.e., on the fourteenth day before the Kalends of December).
- Jump up^ Text at [4] Archived 2007-12-04 at the Wayback Machine. Parts 6 and 12 respectively.
- Jump up^ Michael Alan Anderson, Symbols of Saints (ProQuest 2008 ISBN 978-0-54956551-2), pp. 45-46
- Jump up^ Bishop Jacob Bar-Salabi (cited in Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, Ramsay MacMullen. Yale:1997, p. 155)
- Jump up^ http://www.dec25th.info/Textual[permanent dead link] Tradition of Hippolytus Commentary on Daniel.html
- Jump up^ Towards the Origins of Christmas, Roll, S. (1995), p. 87
- Jump up^ Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, Researches Into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom, Volume 2, p. 270; John Murray, London, 1871; revised edition 1889.
- Jump up^ Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Volume 3, 1885, T and T Clark, Edinburgh, page 396; see also Volume 4 in the 3rd edition, 1910 (Charles Scribner’s Sons, NY).
- Jump up^ Anderson, Michael Alan (2008). Symbols of Saints. ProQuest. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-54956551-2.
- Jump up^ « The Day God Took Flesh ». Melkite Eparchy of Newton of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church. 25 March 2012. Archived from the original on 23 December 2014.
- Jump up^
Martindale, Cyril (1913). « Christmas« . In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- Jump up^ Webb, Matilda (2001). The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome. Sussex Academic Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-90221058-2.
- Jump up^ Kemp, Martin (2000). The Oxford History of Western Art. Oxford University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-19860012-1., emphasis added
- Jump up^ David R. Cartlidge, James Keith Elliott, The Art of Christian Legend(Routledge 2001 ISBN 978-0-41523392-7), p. 64
- Jump up^ Weitzmann, pp. 370, 375
Bibliography
- Berrens, Stephan (2004), Sonnenkult und Kaisertum von den Severern bis zu Constantin I. (193–337 n. Chr.), Geschichte (Franz Steiner Verlag); Historia (Wiesbaden, Germany) (in German), F. Steiner, ISBN 978-3-515-08575-5
- Hijmans, S (2003), « Sol Invictus, the Winter Solstice, and the Origins of Christmas », Mouseion Calgary, 3.3: 377–398, ISSN 1496-9343, OCLC 202535001
- Hijmans, Steven E (2009), Sol : the sun in the art and religions of Rome (Thesis/dissertation), ISBN 90-367-3931-4
- Matern, Petra (2002), Helios und Sol : Kulte und Ikonographie des griechischen und römischen Sonnengottes (in German), Ege Yayınları, ISBN 978-975-8070-53-4
- Weitzmann, Kurt, ed., Age of spirituality : late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century, 1979, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; fully online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art
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