Giacobbe Giusti

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Minoan civilization
Period	Bronze Age Europe
Dates	c. 2600 – c. 1100 BC
Major sites	Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Zakros
Preceded by	Cycladic culture
Followed by	Mycenaean Greece

The Minoan civilization was an Aegean Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and other Aegean islands which flourished from about 2600 to 1100 BC. It preceded the Mycenaean civilization of Ancient Greece.^[1] The civilization was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century through the work of British archaeologist Arthur Evans. It has been described as the earliest of its kind in Europe,^[2] with historian Will Durantcalling the Minoans « the first link in the European chain ».^[3]

The term « Minoan », which refers to the mythical King Minos, originally described in the pottery of the period. Minos was associated in Greek mythology with the labyrinth and the Minotaur, which Evans identified with the site at Knossos (the largest Minoan site). According to Homer, Crete once had 90 cities.^[4]

The Minoan period saw trade between Crete and Aegean and Mediterranean settlements, particularly the Near East. Through their traders and artists, the Minoan cultural influence reached beyond Crete to the Cyclades, Egypt‘s Old Kingdom, copper-bearing Cyprus, Canaan and the Levantine coast, and Anatolia. Some of its best art is preserved in the city of Akrotiri on the island of Santorini, which was destroyed by the Thera eruption.

Although the Minoan language and writing systems (Linear A) remain undeciphered, and are the subject of academic dispute, they apparently conveyed a language entirely different from the later Greek. The reason for the end of the Minoan period (around 1400 BC) is unclear; theories include Mycenaean invasions from mainland Greece and a volcanic eruption of Thera.

Etymology

The term « Minoan » refers to the mythical King Minos of Knossos. Its origin is debated, but it is commonly attributed to archeologist Arthur Evans (1851–1941).^[5]Minos was associated in Greek mythology with the labyrinth, which Evans identified with the site at Knossos.

However, Karl Hoeck had already used the title Das Minoische Kreta in 1825 for volume two of his Kreta; this appears to be the first known use of the word « Minoan » to mean « ancient Cretan ».

Evans probably read Hoeck’s book, and continued using the term in his writings and findings:^[6] « To this early civilization of Crete as a whole I have proposed—and the suggestion has been generally adopted by the archaeologists of this and other countries—to apply the name ‘Minoan’. »^[7] Evans said that he applied it, not invented it.

Hoeck, with no idea that the archaeological Crete had existed, had in mind the Crete of mythology. Although Evans’ 1931 claim that the term was « unminted » before he used it was called a « brazen suggestion » by Karadimas and Momigliano,^[6] he coined its archaeological meaning.

Chronology and history

Minoan chronology
2500–2400 BC^[8]	EMI	Prepalatial
2300–2100 BC	EMII
2100–2000 BC	EMIII
2000–1900 BC	MMIA
1900–1850 BC	MMIB	Protopalatial (Old Palace Period)
1850–? BC	MMIIA	Protopalatial (Old Palace Period)
?–1750 BC	MMIIB	Neopalatial (New Palace Period)
1700/1750–1600 BC	MMIIIA
1600–1550 BC	MMIIIB
1550–1500 BC	LMIA
1500–1450 BC	LMIB	Postpalatial (at Knossos; Final Palace Period)
1450–1400 BC	LMII
1400–1300 BC	LMIIIA
1300–1200 BC	LMIIIB

Instead of dating the Minoan period, archaeologists use two systems of relative chronology. The first, created by Evans and modified by later archaeologists, is based on pottery styles and imported Egyptian artifacts (which can be correlated with the chronology of Ancient Egypt). Evans’ system divides the Minoan period into three major eras: early (EM), middle (MM) and late (LM). These eras are subdivided—for example, Early Minoan I, II and III (EMI, EMII, EMIII).

Another dating system, proposed by Greek archaeologist Nicolas Platon, is based on the development of architectural complexes known as « palaces » at Knossos, Phaistos, Malia and Kato Zakros. Platon divides the Minoan period into pre-, proto-, neo- and post-palatial sub-periods. The relationship between the systems in the table includes approximate calendar dates from Warren and Hankey (1989).

The Thera eruption occurred during a mature phase of the LM IA period. Efforts to establish the volcanic eruption’s date have been controversial. Radiocarbon datinghas indicated a date in the late 17th century BC;^[9]^[10] this conflicts with estimates by archaeologists, who synchronize the eruption with conventional Egyptian chronology for a date of 1525–1500 BC.^[11]^[12]^[13]

Overview

Although stone-tool evidence exists that hominins may have reached Crete as early as 130,000 years ago, evidence for the first anatomically-modern human presence dates to 10,000–12,000 YBP.^[14]^[15] The oldest evidence of modern human habitation on Crete are pre-ceramic Neolithic farming-community remains which date to about 7000 BC.^[16] A comparative study of DNA haplogroups of modern Cretan men showed that a male founder group, from Anatolia or the Levant, is shared with the Greeks.^[17] The Neolithic population lived in open villages. Fishermen’s huts were found on the shores, and the fertile Mesara Plain was used for agriculture.^[18]

Early Minoan

The Early Bronze Age (3500 to 2600 BC) has been described as indicating a « promise of greatness »^[19] in light of later developments on the island. The Bronze Age began on Crete around 2700 BC.^[20] In the late third millennium BC, several locations on the island developed into centers of commerce and handiwork; this enabled the upper classes to exercise leadership and expand their influence. It is likely that the original hierarchies of the local elites were replaced by monarchies, a precondition for the palaces.^[21]

Middle Minoan

At the end of the MMII period (1700 BC) there was a large disturbance on Crete—probably an earthquake, but possibly an invasion from Anatolia.^[22] The palaces at Knossos, Phaistos, Malia and Kato Zakros were destroyed.

At the beginning of the neopalatial period the population increased again,^[23] the palaces were rebuilt on a larger scale and new settlements were built across the island. This period (the 17th and 16th centuries BC, MM III-Neopalatial) was the apex of Minoan civilization. After around 1700 BC, material culture on the Greek mainland reached a new high due to Minoan influence.^[21]

Late Minoan

Another natural catastrophe occurred around 1600 BC, possibly an eruption of the Thera volcano. The Minoans rebuilt the palaces with several major differences in function.^[24]^[21]^[25]

Around 1450 BC, Minoan culture reached a turning point due to a natural catastrophe (possibly an earthquake). Although another eruption of the Thera volcano has been linked to this downfall, its dating and implications are disputed. Several important palaces, in locations such as Mallia, Tylissos, Phaistos and Hagia Triada, and the living quarters of Knossos were destroyed. The palace in Knossos seems to have remained largely intact, resulting in its dynasty’s ability to spread its influence over large parts of Crete until it was overrun by the Mycenaean Greeks.^[21]

Foreign influence

The influence of Minoan civilization is seen in Minoan handicrafts on the Greek mainland. The shaft graves of Mycenae had several Cretan imports (such as a bull’s-head rhyton), which suggests a prominent role for Minoan symbolism. Connections between Egypt and Crete are prominent; Minoan ceramics are found in Egyptian cities, and the Minoans imported items (particularly papyrus) and architectural and artistic ideas from Egypt. Egyptian hieroglyphs were models for Minoan pictographic writing, from which the Linear A and Linear B writing systems developed.^[18]Archaeologist Hermann Bengtson has also found a Minoan influence in Canaaniteartifacts.

Minoan palace sites were occupied by the Mycenaeans (who adapted Linear A Minoan script for their own language) around 1420–1375 BC.^[26]^[21] Their language, a form of Greek, was written in Linear B. The Mycenaeans tended to adapt (rather than supplant) Minoan culture, religion and art,^[27] continuing the Minoan economic system and bureaucracy.^[21]

During LMIIIA (1400–1300 BC), Amenhotep III noted k-f-t-w (Kaftor) as one of the « Secret Lands of the North of Asia » at Kom el-Hatan.^[28] Also mentioned are Cretan cities (such as Amnisos, Phaistos, Kydonia and Knossos) and toponymsreconstructed as in the Cyclades or the Greek mainland. If the values of these Egyptian names are accurate, the pharaoh did not value LMIII Knossos more than other states in the region.^[29]

After about a century of partial recovery, most Cretan cities and palaces declined during the 13th century BC (LHIIIB-LMIIIB). The last Linear A archives date to LMIIIA, contemporary with LHIIIA.

Knossos remained an administrative center until 1200 BC. The last Minoan site was the defensive mountain site of Karfi, a refuge which had vestiges of Minoan civilization nearly into the Iron Age.^[30]

Geography

Knossos

Gortyn

Clickable map of Greece, with major Minoan sites

Crete is a mountainous island with natural harbors. There are signs of earthquake damage at many Minoan sites, and clear signs of land uplifting and submersion of coastal sites due to tectonic processes along its coast.^[31]

According to Homer, Crete had 90 cities.^[4] Judging by the palace sites, the island was probably divided into at least eight political units at the height of the Minoan period. The north is thought to have been governed from Knossos, the south from Phaistos, the central-eastern region from Malia, the eastern tip from Kato Zakros and the west from Chania. Smaller palaces have been found elsewhere on the island.

Major Minoan archaeological sites include:

Palaces:
- Knossos – the largest^[32] Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete; was purchased for excavations by Evans on March 16, 1900.
- Phaistos – the second-largest^[32] palatial building on the island, excavated by the Italian school shortly after Knossos
- Malia – the subject of French excavations, a palatial center which provides a look into the proto-palatial period
- Kato Zakros – palatial site excavated by Greek archaeologists in the far east of the island, also known as « Zakro » in archaeological literature
- Galatas – confirmed as a palatial site during the early 1990s
Agia Triada – administrative center near Phaistos
Gournia – town site excavated in the first quarter of the 20th century
Pyrgos – early Minoan site in southern Crete
Vasiliki – early eastern Minoan site which gives its name to distinctive ceramic ware
Fournou Korfi – southern site
Pseira – island town with ritual sites
Mount Juktas – the greatest Minoan peak sanctuary, associated with the palace of Knossos^[33]
Arkalochori – site of the Arkalochori Axe
Karfi – refuge site, one of the last Minoan sites
Akrotiri – settlement on the island of Santorini (Thera), near the site of the Thera Eruption
Zominthos – mountainous city in the northern foothills of Mount Ida

Settlements

Giacobbe Giusti, Minoan civilization

Minoan fresco, showing a fleet and settlement

Knossos had an estimated population of 1,300 to 2,000 in 2500 BC, 18,000 in 2000 BC, 20,000 to 100,000 in 1600 BC and 30,000 in 1360 BC. Gortyn was also a noted Minoan settlement.^[34]^[35]^[36]

Beyond Crete

Giacobbe Giusti, Minoan civilization

Minoan copper ingot

The Minoans were traders, and their cultural contacts reached Egypt’s Old Kingdom, copper-containing Cyprus, Canaan and the Levantine coast and Anatolia. In late 2009 Minoan-style frescoes and other artifacts were discovered during excavations of the Canaanite palace at Tel Kabri, Israel, leading archaeologists to conclude that the Minoan influence was the strongest on the Canaanite city-state. These are the only Minoan artifacts which have been found in Israel.^[37]

Minoan techniques and ceramic styles had varying degrees of influence on Helladic Greece. Along with Santorini, Minoan settlements are found^[38] at Kastri on Cythera, an island near the Greek mainland influenced by the Minoans from the mid-third millennium BC (EMII) to its Mycenaean occupation in the 13th century.^[39]^[40]^[41]Minoan strata replaced a mainland-derived early Bronze Age culture, the earliest Minoan settlement outside Crete.^[42]

The Cyclades were in the Minoan cultural orbit, and (closer to Crete) the islands of Karpathos, Saria and Kasos also contained middle-Bronze Age (MMI-II) Minoan colonies or settlements of Minoan traders. Most were abandoned in LMI, but Karpathos recovered and continued its Minoan culture until the end of the Bronze Age.^[43] Other supposed Minoan colonies, such as that hypothesized by Adolf Furtwängler on Aegina, were later dismissed by scholars.^[44] However, there was a Minoan colony at Ialysos on Rhodes.^[45]

Minoan cultural influence indicates an orbit extending through the Cyclades to Egypt and Cyprus. Fifteenth-century BC paintings in Thebes, Egypt depict Minoan-appearing individuals bearing gifts. Inscriptions describing them as coming from keftiu (« islands in the middle of the sea ») may refer to gift-bringing merchants or officials from Crete.^[46]

Some locations on Crete indicate that the Minoans were an « outward-looking » society.^[47] The neo-palatial site of Kato Zakros is located within 100 meters of the modern shoreline in a bay. Its large number of workshops and wealth of site materials indicate a possible entrepôt for trade. Such activities are seen in artistic representations of the sea, including the « Flotilla » fresco in room five of the West House at Akrotiri.^{[citation needed]}

Agriculture and cuisine

Giacobbe Giusti, Minoan civilization

The partially-restored « campstool fresco » from Knossos

The Minoans raised cattle, sheep, pigs and goats, and grew wheat, barley, vetch and chickpeas. They also cultivated grapes, figs and olives, and grew poppies for seed and (perhaps) opium. The Minoans also domesticated bees.^[48]

Crops, including lettuce, celery, asparagus and carrots, grew wild on Crete. Pear, quince, and olive trees were also native. Date palmtrees and cats (for hunting) were imported from Egypt.^[49] The Minoans adopted pomegranates from the Near East, but not lemons and oranges.

They may have practiced polyculture,^[50] and their varied, healthy diet resulted in a population increase. Polyculture theoretically maintains soil fertility and protects against losses due to crop failure. Linear B tablets indicate the importance of orchards (figs, olives and grapes) in processing crops for « secondary products ».^[51]Olive oil in Cretan (or Mediterranean) cuisine is comparable to butter in northern European cuisine.^[52] The process of fermenting wine from grapes was probably a factor of the « Palace » economies; wine would have been a trade commodity and an item of domestic consumption.^[53] Farmers used wooden plows, bound with leather to wooden handles and pulled by pairs of donkeys or oxen.

Seafood was also important in Cretan cuisine. The prevalence of edible molluscs in site material^[54] and artistic representations of marine fish and animals (including the distinctive LM IIIC « Octopus » stirrup jar), indicate appreciation (and occasional use) of fish by the economy. However, scholars believe that these resources were not as significant as grain, olives and animal produce. « Fishing was one of the major activities…but there is as yet no evidence for the way in which they organized their fishing. »^[55] An intensification of agricultural activity is indicated by the construction of terraces and dams at Pseira in the Late Minoan period.

Cretan cuisine included wild game; Cretans ate wild deer and boar and meat from livestock. Wild game is now extinct on Crete.^[56]

Not all plants and flora were purely functional, and arts depict scenes of lily-gathering in green spaces. The fresco known as the Sacred Grove at Knossos depicts women facing left, flanked by trees. Some scholars have suggested that it is a harvest festival, or ceremony, to honor the fertility of the soil. Artistic depictions of farming scenes also appear on the Second Palace Period « Harvester Vase » (an egg-shaped rhyton), on which 27 men led by another carry hoes. This demonstrates the importance of farming as an artistic motif.

The discovery of storage areas in the palace compounds has prompted debate. At the second « palace » at Phaistos, rooms on the west side of the structure have been identified as a storage area. Jars, jugs and vessels have been recovered in the area, indicating the complex’s possible role as a re-distribution center for agricultural produce. At larger sites such as Knossos, there is evidence of craft specialization (workshops). The palace at Kato Zakro indicates that workshops were integrated into palace structure. The Minoan palatial system may have developed through economic intensification, where an agricultural surplus could support a population of administrators, craftsmen and religious practitioners. The number of sleeping rooms in the palaces indicates that they could have supported a sizable population which was removed from manual labor.

Tools

Tools, originally made of wood or bone, were bound to handles with leather straps. During the Bronze Age, they were made of bronze with wooden handles. Due to its round hole, the tool head would spin on the handle. The Minoans developed oval-shaped holes in their tools to fit oval-shaped handles, which prevented spinning.^[48]Tools included double adzes, double- and single-bladed axes, axe-adzes, sickles and chisels.

Society and culture

Giacobbe Giusti, Minoan civilization

The « saffron-gatherers »

The Minoans were primarily a mercantilepeople who engaged in overseas trade. After 1700 BC, their culture indicates a high degree of organization. Minoan-manufactured goods suggest a network of trade with mainland Greece (notably Mycenae), Cyprus, Syria, Anatolia, Egypt, Mesopotamia and westward as far as the Iberian peninsula. Minoan religion apparently focused on female deities, with women officiants.^[57] While historians and archaeologists have long been skeptical of an outright matriarchy, the predominance of female figures in authoritative roles over male ones seems to indicate that Minoan society was matriarchal, and among the most well-supported examples known.^[58]

Saffron trade

A fresco of saffron-gatherers at Santorini is well-known. The Minoan trade in saffron, the stigma of a naturally-mutated crocus which originated in the Aegean basin, has left few material remains. According to Evans, the saffron (a sizable Minoan industry) was used for dye.^[59] Other archaeologists emphasize durable trade items: ceramics, copper, tin, gold and silver.^[59] The saffron may have had a religious significance.^[60]The saffron trade, which predated Minoan civilization, was comparable in value to that of frankincense or black pepper.

Fashion

Minoan men wore loincloths and kilts. Women wore robes with short sleeves and layered, flounced skirts. The robes were open to the navel, exposing their breasts.^[61]Women could also wear a strapless, fitted bodice, and clothing patterns had symmetrical, geometric designs.

Language and writing

Giacobbe Giusti, Minoan civilization

One side of the Phaistos Disc

Knowledge of the spoken and written language of the Minoans is scant due to the small number of records found. Clay tablets, dating to around 3000 BC, were found with Aegean scripts.^[62] Clay tablets were apparently in use around 3000 BC or earlier. Two clay cups from Knossos had remnants of ink, and inkwells similar to animal-shaped Mesopotamian inkstands have been found.^[63] The Eteocretan language, written with a Euboean-derived alphabet after the Greek Dark Ages, is believed to be a descendant of Minoan; however, there is not enough source material in either language to allow a firm conclusion.

The earliest dated writings found on Crete are Cretan hieroglyphs. It is unknown whether the language is Minoan, and its origin is debated. Although the hieroglyphs are often associated with the Egyptians, they also indicate a relationship to Mesopotamian writings.^[63] They came into use during MMI, and were used at the same time as Linear A (18th century BC; MM II). The hieroglyphs disappeared during the 17th century BC (MM III).

Linear A served as the foundation for Linear B, which recorded the earliest attestedform of the Greek language: Mycenaean Greek. Although Linear B was deciphered by Michael Ventris in 1952, the earlier scripts remain a mystery. Nearly all the tablets, written in the Linear B script, seem to be inventories of goods or resources. Others are inscriptions on religious objects associated with a cult. Because most of the inscriptions are economic records rather than dedicatory inscriptions, the translation of Minoan remains a challenge. Unless Eteocretan is its descendant, the Minoan language may have become extinct during the Greek Dark Ages (a period of economic and sociopolitical collapse).^[64]

Religion

The smaller of two Minoan snake goddess figurines

The Minoans seem to have primarily worshiped a Great Goddess, and their society has been described as matriarchal.^[65]^[66]^[67]^[68]^[69]^[70] Some scholars see in the Minoan Goddess a female divine solar figure.^[71]^[72] Some evidence of male gods exists, but depictions of Minoan goddesses vastly outnumber those of gods.^[73] Although some depictions of women may be images of worshipers and priestesses officiating at religious ceremonies (as opposed to deities), goddesses seem to include a mother goddess of fertility, a goddess of animals and female protectors of cities, the household, the harvest and the underworld. They are often represented by serpents, birds, poppies or an animal on the head.

According to Nanno Marinatos, « The hierarchy and relationship of gods within the pantheon is difficult to decode from the images alone. »^[74] Marinatos disagrees with earlier descriptions of Minoan religion as primitive, saying that it « was the religion of a sophisticated and urbanized palatial culture with a complex social hierarchy. It was not dominated by fertility any more than any religion of the past or present has been, and it addressed gender identity, rites of passage, and death. It is reasonable to assume that both the organization and the rituals, even the mythology, resembled the religions of Near Eastern palatial civilizations. »^[74] It even seems that the later Greek pantheon would synthesize the Minoan female deity and Hittite goddess from the Near East.^[75]

Symbolism

Minoan horn-topped altars, which Arthur Evans called Horns of Consecration, are represented in seal impressions and have been found as far afield as Cyprus. Minoan sacred symbols include the bull (and its horns of consecration), the labrys(double-headed axe), the pillar, the serpent, the sun-disc and the tree.

The Bull Leaper, from Knossos (Heraklion Archaeological Museum)

Haralampos V. Harissis and Anastasios V. Harissis posit a different interpretation of these symbols, saying that they were based on apiculturerather than religion.^[76] A major festival was exemplified in bull-leaping, represented in the frescoes of Knossos^[77] and inscribed in miniature seals.^[78]

Burial practices

Similar to other Bronze Age archaeological finds, burial remains constitute much of the material and archaeological evidence for the period. By the end of the Second Palace Period, Minoan burial was dominated by two forms: circular tombs (tholoi) in southern Crete and house tombs in the north and the east. However, much Minoan mortuary practice does not conform to this pattern. Burialwas more popular than cremation.^[79] Individual burial was the rule, except for the Chrysolakkos complex in Malia. Here, a number of buildings form a complex in the center of Mallia’s burial area and may have been the focus for burial rituals or a crypt for a notable family.^{[citation needed]} Evidence of possible human sacrifice by the Minoans has been found at three sites: at Anemospilia, in a MMII building near Mt. Juktas considered a temple; an EMII sanctuary complex at Fournou Korifi in south-central Crete, and in an LMIB building known as the North House in Knossos(explanation of abbreviations).

Architecture

Restored model of a Minoan house found in Archanes

Minoan cities were connected by roads paved with blocks cut with bronze saws. Streets were drained, and water and sewagefacilities were available to the upper class through clay pipes.^[80]

Minoan buildings often had flat, tiled roofs; plaster, wood or flagstone floors, and stood two to three stories high. Lower walls were typically constructed of stone and rubble, and the upper walls of mudbrick. Ceiling timbers held up the roofs.

Construction materials for villas and palaces varied, and included sandstone, gypsumand limestone. Building techniques also varied, with some palaces using ashlarmasonry and others roughly-hewn, megalithic blocks.

Palaces

Giacobbe Giusti, Minoan civilization

Storage jars at Knossos

Giacobbe Giusti, Minoan civilization

Ruins of the palace at Knossos

Palaces (anaktora) are the best-known Minoan building types excavated on Crete. They are monumental buildings with administrativepurposes, as evidenced by large archivesunearthed by archaeologists. Each palace excavated to date has unique features, but they also share aspects which set them apart from other structures. Palaces are often multi-story, with interior and exterior staircases, lightwells, massive columns, storage areas and courtyards.

The first palaces were constructed at the end of the Early Minoan period in the third millennium BC at Malia. Although it was formerly believed that the foundation of the first palaces was synchronous and dated to the Middle Minoan period (around 2000 BC, the date of the first palace at Knossos), scholars now think that the palaces were built over a longer period in response to local developments. The main older palaces are Knossos, Malia and Phaistos. Elements of the Middle Minoan palaces (at Knossos, Phaistos and Malia, for example) have precedents in Early Minoan construction styles.^[81] These include an indented western court and special treatment of the western façade. One example is the House on the Hill at Vasiliki, dated to the Early Minoan II period.^[82] The palaces were centers of government, administrative offices, shrines, workshops and storage spaces.^[83]^{[self-published source]}^[84]

Giacobbe Giusti, Minoan civilization

Bull-Leaping Fresco found at Knossos

The Middle Minoan palaces are characteristically aligned with their surrounding topography. The MM palace of Phaistos appears to align with Mount Idaand Knossos is aligned with Mount Juktas,^[85] both on a north-south axis. Scholars suggest that the alignment was related to the mountains’ ritual significance; a number of peak sanctuaries (spaces for public ritual) have been excavated, including one at Petsofas. These sites have yielded clusters of clay figurines and evidence of animal sacrifice.

Late palaces are characterized by multi-story buildings with west facades of sandstone ashlar masonry; Knossos is the best-known example. Other building conventions included storage areas, north-south orientation, a pillar room and a western court. Architecture during the First Palace Period is identified by a square-within-a-square style; Second Palace Period construction has more internal divisions and corridors.^[86] Furthermore, the palace of Knossos was not just a regular palace that the Minoans built. The Palace of Knossos was the biggest palace that the Minoan people had ever constructed. The palace is about 150 meters across and it spreads over an area of some 20,000 square meters, with its original upper levels possibly having a thousand chambers. The palace is connected to the mythological story of The Bull of Minos, since it is in this palace where it was written that the labyrinth existed. Focusing on the architectural aspects of the Palace of Knossos, it was a combination of foundations that depended on the aspects of its walls for; the dimensions of the rooms, staircases, porticos, and chambers. The palace was designed in such a fashion that the structure was laid out to surround the central court of the Minoans. Aesthetically speaking, the pillars along with the stone paved northern entrance gave the palace a look and feel that was unique to the Palace of Knossos. The space surrounding the court was covered with rooms and hallways, some of which were stacked on top of the lower levels of the palace being linked through multiple ramps and staircases.^[87] Others were built into a hill, as described by the site’s excavator Arthur John Evans, « …The palace of Knossos is the most extensive and occupies several hills. »^[88] On the east side of the court there was a grand staircase passing through the many levels of the palace, added for the royal residents. On the west side of the court, the throne room, a modest room with a ceiling some two meters high,^[34] can be found along with the frescoes that were decorating the walls of the hallways and storage rooms.

Plumbing

During the Minoan Era extensive waterways were built in order to protect the growing population. These system had two primary functions, first providing and distributing water, and secondly relocating sewage and stormwater.^[89] One of the defining aspects of the Minoan Era was the architectural feats of their waste management. The Minoans used technologies such as wells, cisterns, and aqueducts to manage their water supplies. Structural aspects of their buildings even played a part. Flat roofs and plentiful open courtyards were used for collecting water to be stored in cisterns.^[90] Significantly, the Minoans had water treatments devices. One such device seems to have been a porous clay pipe through which water was allowed to flow until clean.

Columns

Columns at Knossos

One of the most notable Minoan contributions to architecture is their inverted column, wider at the top than the base (unlike most Greek columns, which are wider at the bottom to give an impression of height). The columns were made of wood (not stone) and were generally painted red. Mounted on a simple stone base, they were topped with a pillow-like, round capital.^[91]^[92]

Villas

A number of compounds known as « villas » have been excavated on Crete. These structures share features of neopalatial palaces: a conspicuous western facade, storage facilities and a three-part Minoan Hall.^[93] These features may indicate a similar role or that the structures were artistic imitations, suggesting that their occupants were familiar with palatial culture. The villas were often richly decorated, as evidenced by the frescos of Haghia Triadha Villa A.

Art

Giacobbe Giusti, Minoan civilization

Fresco from the Palace of Minos at Knossos

The largest collection of Minoan art is in the museum at Heraklion, near Knossos, on the northern coast of Crete. Minoan art and other remnants of material culture, especially the sequence of ceramic styles, have been used by archaeologists to define the three phases of Minoan culture (EM, MM, LM).

Since wood and textiles have decomposed, the best-preserved (and most instructive) surviving examples of Minoan art are its pottery, palace architecture (with frescos which include landscapes), stone carvings and intricately-carved seal stones.

Frescoes were the primary art form of Minoan culture.^{[citation needed]} They include many depictions of people, with sexes distinguished by color; the men’s skin is reddish-brown, and the women’s white.^[94] Several frescoes at Knossos and Santorini survive. In contrast to Egyptian frescoes, Crete had true frescoes. Probably the most famous fresco is the bull-leaping fresco.^[95]

Pottery

Giacobbe Giusti, Minoan civilization

Marine style Minoan decorated jug, 1575–1500 BC (Brooklyn Museum)

A variety of wares were produced in Crete. Early Minoan ceramics were characterized by patterns of spirals, triangles, curved lines, crosses, fish bones, and beak-spouts. During the Middle Minoan period, naturalistic designs (such as fish, squid, birds and lilies) were common. In the Late Minoan period, flowers and animals were still characteristic but more variety existed.

The palace style of the region around Knossos is characterized by geometric simplicity and monochromatic painting. Late Minoan art resembles that of Mycenae. Minoan knowledge of the sea was continued by the Mycenaeans in their frequent use of marine forms as artistic motifs. The so-called « marine style », perhaps inspired by frescoes, has the entire surface of a pot covered with sea creatures, octopus, fish and dolphins, against a background of rocks, seaweed and sponges.

Jewelry

The Minoans created elaborate metalwork with imported gold and copper.^[96] Bead necklaces, bracelets and hair ornaments appear in the frescoes,^[97] and many labrys pins survive. The Minoans apparently mastered faience and granulation, as indicated by a gold bee pendant. Minoan metalworking included intense, precise temperature, to bond gold to itself without burning it.^{[citation needed]}

Metal vessels

Giacobbe Giusti, Minoan civilization

Golden cup from a LH IIA Mycenaean grave at Vapheio, one of a pair known as the « Vapheio Cups« . This cup is believed to be of Minoan manufacture while its twin is thought to be Mycenaean. National Archaeological Museum, Athens.

Metal vessels were produced in Crete from at least as early as EM II (c. 2500) in the Prepalatial period through to LM IA (c. 1450) in the Postpalatial period and perhaps as late as LM IIIB/C (c. 1200),^[98] although it is likely that many of the vessels from these later periods were heirlooms from earlier periods.^[99] The earliest were probably made exclusively from precious metals, but from the Protopalatial period (MM IB – MM IIA) they were also produced in arsenical bronze and, subsequently, tin bronze.^[100] The archaeological record suggests that mostly cup-type forms were created in precious metals,^[101] but the corpus of bronze vessels was diverse, including cauldrons, pans, hydrias, bowls, pitchers, basins, cups, ladles and lamps.^[102] The Minoan metal vessel tradition influenced that of the Mycenaean culture on mainland Greece, and they are often regarded as the same tradition.^[103]Many precious metal vessels found on mainland Greece exhibit Minoan characteristics, and it is thought that these were either imported from Crete or made on the mainland by Minoan metalsmiths working for Mycenaean patrons or by Mycenaean smiths who had trained under Minoan masters.^[104]

Warfare and the « Minoan peace »

According to Arthur Evans, a « Minoan peace » (Pax Minoica) existed; there was little internal armed conflict in Minoan Crete until the Mycenaean period.^[105] However, it is difficult to draw hard-and-fast conclusions from the evidence^[106] and Evans’ idealistic view has been questioned.^[107]

No evidence has been found of a Minoan army or the Minoan domination of peoples beyond Crete, and few signs of warfare appear in Minoan art: « Although a few archaeologists see war scenes in a few pieces of Minoan art, others interpret even these scenes as festivals, sacred dance, or sports events » (Studebaker, 2004, p. 27). Although armed warriors are depicted as stabbed in the throat with swords, the violence may be part of a ritual or blood sport.^{[citation needed]}

On mainland Greece during the shaft-grave era at Mycenae, there is little evidence for major Mycenaean fortifications; the citadels follow the destruction of nearly all neopalatial Cretan sites. Warfare by other contemporaries of the ancient Minoans, such as the Egyptians and the Hittites, is well-documented.

Skepticism and weaponry

Giacobbe Giusti, Minoan civilization

Fresco of children boxing, recovered from the island of Santorini

Despite finding ruined watchtowers and fortification walls,^[108] Evans said that there was little evidence of ancient Minoan fortifications. According to Stylianos Alexiou (in Kretologia 8), a number of sites (especially early and middle Minoan sites such as Aghia Photia) are built on hilltops or otherwise fortified.^{[full citation needed]} Lucia Nixon wrote, « We may have been over-influenced by the lack of what we might think of as solid fortifications to assess the archaeological evidence properly. As in so many other instances, we may not have been looking for evidence in the right places, and therefore we may not end with a correct assessment of the Minoans and their ability to avoid war. »^[109]

Chester Starr said in « Minoan Flower Lovers » (Hagg-Marinatos, eds. Minoan Thalassocracy) that since Shang China and the Maya had unfortified centers and engaged in frontier struggles, a lack of fortifications alone does not prove that the Minoans were a peaceful civilization unparalleled in history.^{[full citation needed]} In 1998, when Minoan archaeologists met in a Belgian conference to discuss the possibility that the Pax Minoica was outdated, evidence of Minoan war was still scanty. According to Jan Driessen, the Minoans frequently depicted « weapons » in their art in a ritual context:

The construction of fortified sites is often assumed to reflect a threat of warfare, but such fortified centres were multifunctional; they were also often the embodiment or material expression of the central places of the territories at the same time as being monuments glorifying and merging leading power.^[110]

Stella Chryssoulaki’s work on small outposts (or guardhouses) in eastern Crete indicates a possible defensive system; type A (high-quality) Minoan swords were found in the palaces of Mallia and Zarkos (see Sanders, AJA 65, 67, Hoeckmann, JRGZM 27, or Rehak and Younger, AJA 102).^{[full citation needed]} Keith Branigan estimated that 95 percent of Minoan « weapons » had hafting (hilts or handles) which would have prevented their use as such.^[111] However, tests of replicas indicated that the weapons could cut flesh down to the bone (and score the bone’s surface) without damaging the weapons themselves.^[112] According to Paul Rehak, Minoan figure-eight shields could not have been used for fighting or hunting, since they were too cumbersome.^[113] Although Cheryl Floyd concluded that Minoan « weapons » were tools used for mundane tasks such as meat processing,^[114] Middle Minoan « rapiersnearly three feet in length » have been found.^[115]

About Minoan warfare, Branigan concluded:

The quantity of weaponry, the impressive fortifications, and the aggressive looking long-boats all suggested an era of intensified hostilities. But on closer inspection there are grounds for thinking that all three key elements are bound up as much with status statements, display, and fashion as with aggression;… Warfare such as there was in the southern Aegean early Bronze Age was either personalized and perhaps ritualized (in Crete) or small-scale, intermittent and essentially an economic activity (in the Cyclades and the Argolid/Attica).^[116]

Archaeologist Olga Krzyszkowska agreed: « The stark fact is that for the prehistoric Aegean we have no direct evidence for war and warfare per se. »^[117]

Collapse

Between 1935 and 1939, Greek archaeologist Spyridon Marinatos posited the Minoan eruption theory. An eruption on the island of Thera (present-day Santorini), about 100 kilometres (62 mi) from Crete, occurred during the LM IA period (1550 – 1500 BC). One of the largest volcanic explosions in recorded history, it ejected about 60 to 100 cubic kilometres (14 to 24 cu mi) of material and was measured at 7 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index.^[118]^[119]^[120] The eruption devastated the nearby Minoan settlement at Akrotiri on Santorini, which was entombed in a layer of pumice.^[121]Although it is believed to have severely affected the Minoan culture of Crete, the extent of its effects has been debated. Early theories proposed that volcanic ash from Thera choked off plant life on the eastern half of Crete, starving the local population;^[122] however, more-thorough field examinations have determined that no more than 5 millimetres (0.20 in) of ash fell anywhere on Crete.^[123] Based on archaeological evidence, studies indicate that a massive tsunami generated by the Thera eruption devastated the coast of Crete and destroyed many Minoan settlements.^[124]^[125]^[126] Although the LM IIIA (late Minoan) period is characterized by affluence (wealthy tombs, burials and art) and ubiquitous Knossian ceramic styles,^[127] by LM IIIB Knossos’ wealth and importance as a regional center apparently declined.

Significant remains have been found above the late Minoan I-era Thera ash layer, implying that the Thera eruption did not cause the immediate collapse of Minoan civilization.^[128] The Minoans were a sea power, however, and the Thera eruption probably caused significant economic hardship. Whether this was enough to trigger a Minoan downfall is debated. Mycenaean Greece conquered the Minoans during the late Minoan II period, and Mycenaean weaponry has been found in burials on Crete soon after the eruption.^[129]

Many archaeologists believe that the eruption triggered a crisis, making the Minoans vulnerable to conquest by the Mycenaeans.^[124] According to Sinclair Hood, the Minoans were most likely conquered by an invading force. Although the civilization’s collapse was aided by the Thera eruption, its ultimate end came from conquest. Archaeological evidence suggests that the island was destroyed by fire, with the palace at Knossos receiving less damage than other sites on Crete. Since natural disasters are not selective, the uneven destruction was probably caused by invaders who would have seen the usefulness of preserving a palace like Knossos for their own use.^[130] Several authors have noted evidence that Minoan civilization had exceeded its environmental carrying capacity, with archaeological recovery at Knossos indicating deforestation in the region near the civilization’s later stages.^[131]^[132]

Genetic studies

A genetic study published in the journal Nature in August 2017 concluded that the Minoans were genetically closely related with the Mycenaean Greeks. Their genomes were similar though not identical. The same study also stated that at least three-quarters of DNA of both the Minoans and the Myceneans came from the first Neolithic-era farmers that lived in Western Anatolia and the Aegean Sea.^[133]

A 2013 mtDNA genetic study was conducted by a research team that analyzed some DNA from ancient Minoan skeletons that were sealed in a cave in Crete’s Lassithi Plateau between 3,700 and 4,400 years ago, as well as other Greek, Anatolian, western and northern European samples, and North African and Egyptian samples.^[134]^[135] They then compared the skeletal mitochondrial DNA, which is passed on through the maternal line, with that found in a sample of 135 modern and ancient populations from around Europe and Africa. The researchers found that the Minoan skeletons were genetically very similar to modern-day Europeans — and especially close to modern-day Cretans, particularly those from the Lassithi Plateau. They were also genetically similar to Neolithic Europeans, but distinct from Egyptian or Libyan populations.^[136] « We now know that the founders of the first advanced European civilization were European, » said study co-author George Stamatoyannopoulos, a human geneticist at the University of Washington. « They were very similar to Neolithic Europeans and very similar to present day-Cretans. »^[135]

Other genetic studies have also found that the ancient Minoans exhibited many Middle Eastern maternal genetic lineages, from populations in contemporary Iraq, Syria, and Turkey, and that « the female [Minoan genetic] component is influenced by Asia and the Middle East as well as Europe. »^[137]^[138]^[139] Additionally, the study carried out by Stamatoyannopoulos’s team did not analyze paternal DNA, and acknowledged that previous research found Middle Eastern genetic influences for both the ancient Minoans paternal and maternal lineages.^[134]

Notes

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^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Die Griechische Frühzeit, C.H. Beck, München, 2002. ISBN 3406479855. pp.12–18
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Jump up^ All estimates have been revised downward by Todd Whitelaw, “Estimating the Population of Neopalatial Knossos,” in G. Cadogan, E. Hatzaki, and A. Vasilakis (eds.), Knossos: Palace, City, State (British School at Athens Studies 12) (London 2004); at Moschlos in eastern Crete, the population expansion was at the end of the Neoplalatial period (Jeffrey S. Soles and Davaras, Moschlos IA 2002: Preface p. xvii).
Jump up^ McEnroe, John C. (1 May 2010). « Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age ». University of Texas Press – via Google Books.
Jump up^ (Driesson, Jan, and MacDonald, Colin F. 2000)
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Jump up^ Roebuck, p. 107.
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Jump up^ For instance, the uplift as much as 9 metres in western Crete linked with the earthquake of 365 is discussed in L. Stathis, C. Stiros, « The 8.5+ magnitude, AD365 earthquake in Crete: Coastal uplift, topography changes, archaeological and Ihistorical signature, » Quaternary International (23 May 2009).
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Jump up^ « Minoan Life in Bronze Age Crete ».
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Jump up^ Sinclair Hood (1971) « The Minoans; the story of Bronze Age Crete » p.87
Jump up^ However, Hamilakis raised doubts in 2007 that systematic polyculture was practiced on Crete. (Hamilakis, Y. (2007) Wiley.com
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^ Jump up to:^a ^b Hood, Sinclair. The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age. Thames and Hudson, 1971, pg.111
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Jump up^ MacKenzie 1917, p. 59
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Jump up^ In the small courtyard of the east wing of the palace of Knossos.
Jump up^ An ivory figure reproduced by Spyridon Marinatos and Max Hirmer, Crete and Mycenae (New York) 1960, fig. 97, also shows the bull dance.
Jump up^ Sinclair Hood (1971) The Minoans; The Story of Bronze Age Crete, pp. 140
Jump up^ Ian Douglas, Cities: An Environmental History, p. 16, I.B. Tauris: London and New York (2013)
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Jump up^ Callender, G (1999). The Minoans and the Mycenaeans: Aegean Society in the Bronze Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195510283.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Antonopoulos, J. (1992). « The great Minoan eruption of Thera volcano and the ensuing tsunami in the Greek Archipelago ». Natural Hazards. 5 (2): 153–168. doi:10.1007/BF00127003.
Jump up^ Pareschi, MT, Favalli, M & Boschi, E (2006). « Impact of the Minoan tsunami of Santorini: Simulated scenarios in the eastern Mediterranean ». Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (18): L18607. Bibcode:2006GeoRL..3318607P. doi:10.1029/2006GL027205.
Jump up^ LaMoreaux, PE (1995). « Worldwide environmental impacts from the eruption of Thera ». Environmental Geology. 26 (3): 172–181. Bibcode:1995EnGeo..26..172L. doi:10.1007/BF00768739.
Jump up^ Dickinson, O (1994) The Aegean Bronze Age pg. 22
Jump up^ « Minoan Culture Survived Ancient Volcano, Evidence Shows ». The New York Times. 28 November 1989.
Jump up^ Bruce Bowen: Mycenae and Minoan Crete, 2000,
Jump up^ Sinclair Hood (1971), The Minoans; The Story of Bronze Age Crete, pp. 58
Jump up^ Pendlebury & Evans 2003.
Jump up^ C. Michael Hogan, « Knossos fieldnotes », Modern Antiquarian (2007)
Jump up^ Katz, Brigit. « DNA Analysis Sheds Light on the Mysterious Origins of the Ancient Greeks ». Smithsonian.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Hughey, Jeffrey (2013). « A European population in Minoan Bronze Age Crete ». Nature Communications. 4: 1861. Bibcode:2013NatCo…4E1861H. doi:10.1038/ncomms2871. Retrieved 19 May 2013.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Tia Ghose, LiveScience: “Mysterious Minoans Were European, DNA Finds”, 2013,
Jump up^ « Minoans Were European, Genetic Study Reveals – Ancient Civilizations ». LiveScience.com.
Jump up^ Wolinsky, Howard (2008). « Our history, our genes. Population genetics lets researchers look back in time at human migrations ». EMBO Reports. 9: 127–9. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7401164. PMC 2246420 . PMID 18246104.
Jump up^ Fernández, E; Pérez-Pérez, A; Gamba, C; Prats, E; Cuesta, P; et al. (2014). « Ancient DNA Analysis of 8000 B.C. Near Eastern Farmers Supports an Early Neolithic Pioneer Maritime Colonization of Mainland Europe through Cyprus and the Aegean Islands ». PLoS Genet. 10 (6): e1004401. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004401.
Jump up^ Martinz, L; Mirabal, S; Luiz, JR; Herrera, RJ; et al. (2008). « Middle Eastern and European mtDNA lineages characterize populations from eastern Crete ». Am J Phys Anthropol. 137: 213–23. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20857. PMID 18500747.

References

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Benton, Janetta Rebold and DiYanni, Robert. Arts and Culture: An Introduction to the Humanities. Volume 1. Prentice Hall. New Jersey, 1998.
Bourbon, F. Lost Civilizations. Barnes and Noble, Inc. New York, 1998.
Branigan, Keith, 1970. The Foundations of Palatial Crete.
Branigan, Keith (1999). « The Nature of Warfare in the Southern Aegean During the Third Millennium BC ». In Laffineur, Robert. Polemos: Le Contexte Guerrier en Egee a L’Age du Bronze. Actes de la 7e Rencontre egeenne internationale Universite de Liège, 1998. Universite de Liège, Histoire de l’art d’archeologie de la Grece antique. pp. 87–94.
Burkert, Walter, 1985. Greek Religion. J. Raffan, trans. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-36281-0
Cadogan, Gerald, 1992, » Ancient and Modern Crete, » in Myers et al., 1992, Aerial Atlas of Ancient Crete.
Callender, Gae (1999) The Minoans and the Mycenaeans: Aegean Society in the Bronze Age Oxford university press, Victoria 3205, Australia
Castleden, Rodney (1993). Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete. Routledge. ISBN 0415040701. 041508833X.
Catling, Hector W. (1964). Cypriot Bronzework in the Mycenaean World. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Clarke, Christina F. (2013). The Manufacture of Minoan Metal Vessels: Theory and Practice. Uppsala: Åströms Förlag. ISBN 978-91-7081-249-1.
Clarke, Christina (2014). « Minoan Metal Vessel Manufacture: Reconstructing Techniques and Technology with Experimental Archaeology » (PDF). In Scott, Rebecca B.; Braekmans, Dennis; Carremans, Mike; Degryse, Patrick. 39th International Symposium on Archaeometry: 28 May – 1 June 2012 Leuven, Belgium. Leuven: Centre for Archaeological Sciences, KU Leuven. pp. 81–85.
Crowley, Janice L. (1989). The Aegean and the East: An Investigation into the Transference of Artistic Motifs between the Aegean, Egypt, and the Near East in the Bronze Age. Göteborg: Åström. ISBN 9789186098551.
Davis, Ellen N. (1977). The Vapheio Cups and Aegean Gold and Silver Ware. New York: Garland Pub. ISBN 9780824026813.
Dickinson, Oliver (1994; 2005 re-print) The Aegean Bronze Age, Cambridge World Archaeology, Cambridge University Press.
Driessen, Jan (1999). « The Archaeology of Aegean Warfare ». In Laffineur, Robert. Polemos: Le Contexte Guerrier en Egee a L’Age du Bronze. Actes de la 7e Rencontre egeenne internationale Universite de Liège, 1998. Universite de Liège, Histoire de l’art d’archeologie de la Grece antique. pp. 11–20.
Driessen J., Langohr C. (2014), « Recent developments in the archaeology of Minoan Crete », Pharos, 20: 75–115; doi:10.2143/PHA.20.1.3064537.
—— (1921). The Palace of Minos: a comparative account of the successive stages of the early Cretan civilization as illustrated by the discoveries at Knossos. Volume I: The Neolithic and Early and Middle Minoan Ages.
Sir Arthur Evans, 1921–35. The Palace of Minos: A Comparative Account of the Successive Stages of the Early Cretan Civilization as Illustrated by the Discoveries at Knossos, 4 vols. in 6 (reissued 1964).
Floyd, Cheryl (1999). « Observations on a Minoan Dagger from Chrysokamino ». In Laffineur, Robert. Polemos: Le Contexte Guerrier en Egee a L’Age du Bronze. Actes de la 7e Rencontre egeenne internationale Universite de Liège, 1998. Universite de Liège, Histoire de l’art d’archeologie de la Grece antique. pp. 433–442.
Furumark, Arne (1972). Mycenaean Pottery I: Analysis and Classification (Reprint 1941 ed.). Stockholm: Åström. ISBN 9185086045.
Gates, Charles, 1999. « Why Are There No Scenes of Warfare in Minoan Art? » pp 277–284 In Laffineur, Robert, ed., Polemos: Le Contexte Guerrier en Egee a L’Age du Bronze. Actes de la 7e Rencontre egeenne internationale Universite de Liège, 1998. Universite de Liège, Histoire de l’art d’archeologie de la Grece antique.
Gere, Cathy. Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism, University of Chicago Press 2009.
Gesell, G.C. (1983). « The Place of the Goddess in Minoan Society ». In O. Krzyszkowska; L. Nixon. Minoan Society. Bristol.
Hemingway, Séan (1 January 1996). « Minoan Metalworking in the Postpalatial Period: A Deposit of Metallurgical Debris from Palaikastro ». The Annual of the British School at Athens. 91: 213–252. doi:10.1017/s0068245400016488. JSTOR 30102549.
Hutchinson, Prehistoric Crete, many editions hardcover and softcover
Goodison, Lucy, and Christine Morris, 1998, « Beyond the Great Mother: The Sacred World of the Minoans, » in Goodison, Lucy, and Christine Morris, eds., Ancient Goddesses: The Myths and the Evidence, London: British Museum Press, pp. 113–132.
Hägg, R. and N. Marinatos, eds. The Minoan Thalassocracy: Myth and Reality (Stockholm) 1994. A summary of revived points-of-view of a Minoan thalassocracy, especially in LMI..
Haralampos V. Harissis, Anastasios V. Harissis. Apiculture in the Prehistoric Aegean. Minoan and Mycenaean Symbols Revisited British Archaeological Reports S1958, 2009 ISBN 978-1-4073-0454-0.
Higgins, Reynold, 1981. Minoan and Mycenaean Art, (revised edition).
Hogan, C. Michael, 2007. Knossos fieldnotes, Modern Antiquarian
Hood, Sinclair, 1971, The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age. London.
Hood, Sinclair, 1971. The Minoans: The Story of Bronze Age Crete
Hughes, Dennis, 1991. Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece. Routledge: London.
Hutchinson, Richard W., 1962. Prehistoric Crete(reprinted 1968)
Kristiansen, Kristiansen & Larsson, Thomas B. (2005) The Rise of Bronze Age Society: Travels, Transmissions and Transformations Cambridge University Press
Krzyszkowska, Olga (1999). « So Where’s the Loot? The Spoils of War and the Archaeological Record ». In Laffineur, Robert. Polemos: Le Contexte Guerrier en Egee a L’Age du Bronze. Actes de la 7e Rencontre egeenne internationale Universite de Liège, 1998. Université de Liège, Histoire de l’art d’archeologie de la Grece antique. pp. 489–498.
Lapatin, Kenneth, 2002. Mysteries of the Snake Goddess: Art, Desire, and the Forging of History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-306-81328-9
MacKenzie, Donald A. (1917). Myths of Crete & Pre-Hellenic Europe.
Manning, S.W., 1995. « An approximate Minoan Bronze Age chronology » in A.B. Knapp, ed., The absolute chronology of the Aegean Early Bronze Age: Archaeology, radiocarbon and history (Appendix 8), in series Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology, Vol. 1 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press) A standard current Minoan chronology.
Marinatos, Nanno, 1993. Minoan Religion: Ritual, Image, and Symbol. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.
Marinatos, Spyridon, 1960. Crete and Mycenae(originally published in Greek, 1959), photographs by Max Hirmer.
Marinatos, Spyridon, 1972. « Life and Art in Prehistoric Thera, » in Proceedings of the British Academy, vol 57.
Matthäus, Hartmut (1980). Die Bronzegefässe der kretisch-mykenischen Kultur. München: C.H. Beck. ISBN 9783406040023.
Mellersh, H.E.L., 1967. Minoan Crete. New York, G.P. Putnam’s Sons.
Nixon, L. (1983). « Changing Views of Minoan Society ». In L. Nixon. Minoan society: Proceedings of the Cambridge Colloquium, 1981.
Papadopoulos, John K., « Inventing the Minoans: Archaeology, Modernity and the Quest for European Identity », Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 18:1:87-149 (June 2005)
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Pendlebury, J. D. S.; Evans, Arthur (2003). Handbook to the Palace of Minos at Knossos with Its Dependencies(2nd ed.). Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-3916-6.
Preziosi, Donald & Hitchcock, Louise A. (1999) Aegean Art and Architecture, Oxford History of Art series, Oxford University Press.
Preston, Laura (2008). « Late Minoan II to IIIB Crete ». In Shelmerdine, Cynthia W. The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 310–326. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521814447.014. ISBN 9781139001892.
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Rehak, Paul (1999). « The Mycenaean ‘Warrior Goddess’ Revisited ». In Laffineur, Robert. Polemos: Le Contexte Guerrier en Egee a L’Age du Bronze. Actes de la 7e Rencontre egeenne internationale Universite de Liège, 1998. Universite de Liège, Histoire de l’art d’archeologie de la Grece antique. pp. 227–240.
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Soles, Jeffrey S. (2008). Mochlos IIA: Period IV: The Mycenaean Settlement and Cemetery: The Sites. INSTAP Academic Press. ISBN 9781931534239.
Warren P., Hankey V., 1989. Aegean Bronze Age Chronology (Bristol).
Watrous, L. Vance (1991), « The origin and iconography of the Late Minoan painted larnax », Hesperia, 60(3): 285–307; JSTOR 148065.
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Wright, James C. (2004). « A Survey of Evidence for Feasting in Mycenaean Society ». Hesperia. 73 (2): 133–178. doi:10.2972/hesp.2004.73.2.133. JSTOR 4134891.
Yule, Paul. Early Cretan Seals: A Study of Chronology. Marburger Studien zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte 4, Mainz 1980 ISBN 3-8053-0490-

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization

http://www.giacobbegcom

[1] Jump up^ « Ancient Crete – Classics – Oxford Bibliographies ».

[2] Jump up^ Sakoulas, Thomas. « History of Minoan Crete ».

[3] Jump up^ Durant, Will (1939). « The Life of Greece ». The Story of Civilization. II. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 21. ISBN 9781451647587.

[:0-4] Jump up to:^a ^b Homer, Odyssey xix.

[5] Jump up^ John Bennet, « Minoan civilization », Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., p. 985.

[NK-6] Jump up to:^a ^b Karadimas, Nektarios; Momigliano, Nicoletta (2004). « On the Term ‘Minoan’ before Evans’s Work in Crete (1894) » (PDF). Studi micenei ed egeo-anatolici. Roma: Edizione del ‘Ateneo. 46 (2): 243–258.

[7] Jump up^ Evans 1921, p. 1.

[8] Jump up^ R W Hutchinson (1965). Prehistoric Crete. Pelican.

[Manning-9] Jump up^ Manning, Sturt W; Ramsey, CB; Kutschera, W; Higham, T; Kromer, B; Steier, P; Wild, EM (2006). « Chronology for the Aegean Late Bronze Age 1700–1400 BC ». Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 312 (5773): 565–569. Bibcode:2006Sci…312..565M. doi:10.1126/science.1125682. PMID 16645092. Retrieved 2007-03-10.

[10] Jump up^ Friedrich, Walter L; Kromer, B; Friedrich, M; Heinemeier, J; Pfeiffer, T; Talamo, S (2006). « Santorini Eruption Radiocarbon Dated to 1627–1600 B.C ». Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 312 (5773): 548. doi:10.1126/science.1125087. PMID 16645088. Retrieved 2007-03-10.

[11] Jump up^ « Chronology ». Thera Foundation. Retrieved 2009-01-03.

[12] Jump up^ Balter, M (2006). « New Carbon Dates Support Revised History of Ancient Mediterranean ». Science. 312 (5773): 508–509. doi:10.1126/science.312.5773.508. PMID 16645054.

[13] Jump up^ Warren PM (2006). Czerny E, Hein I, Hunger H, Melman D, Schwab A, eds. Timelines: Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 149). Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Peeters. pp. 2: 305–321. ISBN 90-429-1730-X.

[14] Jump up^ Wilford, J.N., « On Crete, New Evidence of Very Ancient Mariners », The New York Times, Feb 2010

[15] Jump up^ Bowner, B., « Hominids Went Out of Africa on Rafts », Wired, Jan 2010

[16] Jump up^ Broodbank, C.; Strasser, T. (1991). « Migrant farmers and the Neolithic colonisation of Crete ». Antiquity. 65 (247): 233–245. doi:10.1017/s0003598x00079680.

[17] Jump up^ R.J. King, S.S. Ozcan et al., « Differential Y-chromosome Anatolian influences on the Greek and Cretan Neolithic » Archived 2009-03-05 at the Wayback Machine.

[bengtson-18] Jump up to:^a ^b Hermann Bengtson: Griechische Geschichte, C.H. Beck, München, 2002. 9th Edition. ISBN 340602503X. pp.8–15

[19] Jump up^ Hermann Kinder & Werner Hilgemann, Anchor Atlas of World History, (Anchor Press: New York, 1974) p. 33.

[20] Jump up^ Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times (Charles Scribner’s Sons: New York, 1966) p. 101.

[welwei-21] Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Die Griechische Frühzeit, C.H. Beck, München, 2002. ISBN 3406479855. pp.12–18

[22] Jump up^ Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black; Larry S. Krieger; Phillip C. Naylor; Dahia Ibo Shabaka (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274-X.

[23] Jump up^ All estimates have been revised downward by Todd Whitelaw, “Estimating the Population of Neopalatial Knossos,” in G. Cadogan, E. Hatzaki, and A. Vasilakis (eds.), Knossos: Palace, City, State (British School at Athens Studies 12) (London 2004); at Moschlos in eastern Crete, the population expansion was at the end of the Neoplalatial period (Jeffrey S. Soles and Davaras, Moschlos IA 2002: Preface p. xvii).

[24] Jump up^ McEnroe, John C. (1 May 2010). « Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age ». University of Texas Press – via Google Books.

[25] Jump up^ (Driesson, Jan, and MacDonald, Colin F. 2000)

[26] Jump up^ Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times p. 77.

[27] Jump up^ Roebuck, p. 107.

[28] Jump up^ Kozloff, Arielle P. (20 February 2012). « Amenhotep III: Egypt’s Radiant Pharaoh ». Cambridge University Press – via Google Books.

[29] Jump up^ « Minos ». Universidad de Salamanca. 1 January 1999 – via Google Books.

[30] Jump up^ BBC « The Minoan Civilisation of Crete »: « The later Minoan towns are in more and more inaccessible places, the last one being at Karfi, high in the Dikti Mountains. From that time onward, there are no traces of the Minoans ».

[31] Jump up^ For instance, the uplift as much as 9 metres in western Crete linked with the earthquake of 365 is discussed in L. Stathis, C. Stiros, « The 8.5+ magnitude, AD365 earthquake in Crete: Coastal uplift, topography changes, archaeological and Ihistorical signature, » Quaternary International (23 May 2009).

[Thera_and_the_Aegean_World_III-32] Jump up to:^a ^b « Thera and the Aegean World III ». Archived from the original on 2010-04-25. Retrieved 2009-09-13.

[33] Jump up^ Donald W. Jones (1999) Peak Sanctuaries and Sacred Caves in Minoan Crete ISBN 91-7081-153-9

[:1-34] Jump up to:^a ^b « The Knossos Labyrinth ».

[35] Jump up^ « Minoan Life in Bronze Age Crete ».

[36] Jump up^ « Atlantis Destroyed ».

[37] Jump up^ « Remains of Minoan fresco found at Tel Kabri »; « Remains Of Minoan-Style Painting Discovered During Excavations of Canaanite Palace », ScienceDaily, 7 December 2009

[38] Jump up^ Best, Jan G. P.; Vries, Nanny M. W. de (1 January 1980). « Interaction and Acculturation in the Mediterranean: Proceedings of the Second International Congress of Mediterranean Pre- and Protohistory, Amsterdam, 19–23 November 1980 ». John Benjamins Publishing – via Google Books.

[39] Jump up^ « The Minoans ».

[40] Jump up^ Hägg and Marinatos 1984; Hardy (ed.) 1984; Broadbank 2004

[41] Jump up^ Branigan, Keith (1 January 1981). « Minoan Colonialism ». The Annual of the British School at Athens. 76: 23–33. doi:10.1017/s0068245400019444. JSTOR 30103026– via JSTOR.

[42] Jump up^ J. N. Coldstream and G. L. Huxley, Kythera: Excavations and Studies Conducted by the University of Pennsylvania Museum and the British School at Athens (London: Faber & Faber) 1972.

[43] Jump up^ E. M. Melas, The Islands of Karpathos, Saros and Kasos in the Neolithic and Bronze Age (Studies in Mediterranean archaeology 68) (Göteburg) 1985.

[44] Jump up^ James Penrose Harland, Prehistoric Aigina: A History of the Island in the Bronze Age, ch. V. (Paris) 1925.

[45] Jump up^ Arne Furumark, « The settlement at Ialysos and Aegean history c. 1500-1400 B.B. », in Opuscula archaeologica 6 (Lund) 1950;T. Marketou, « New Evidence on the Topography and Site History of Prehistoric Ialysos. » in Soren Dietz and Ioannis Papachristodoulou (eds.), Archaeology in the Dodecanese (1988:28–31).

[46] Jump up^ Dickinson, O (1994) Pg. 248

[47] Jump up^ Hoffman, Gail L. (1 January 1997). « Imports and Immigrants: Near Eastern Contacts with Iron Age Crete ». University of Michigan Press – via Google Books.

[Sinclair_Hood_1971-48] Jump up to:^a ^b Sinclair Hood (1971) « The Minoans; the story of Bronze Age Crete »

[49] Jump up^ Sinclair Hood (1971) « The Minoans; the story of Bronze Age Crete » p.87

[50] Jump up^ However, Hamilakis raised doubts in 2007 that systematic polyculture was practiced on Crete. (Hamilakis, Y. (2007) Wiley.com

[51] Jump up^ Sherratt, A. (1981) Plough and Pastoralism: Aspects of the Secondary Products Revolution

[52] Jump up^ Sinclair Hood (1971), The Minoans; The Story of Bronze Age Crete, pp. 86

[53] Jump up^ Hamilakis, Y (1999) Food Technologies/Technologies of the Body: The Social Context of Wine and Oil Production and Consumption in Bronze Age Crete [1]

[54] Jump up^ Dickinson, O (1994) The Aegean Bronze Age pg. 28)

[55] Jump up^ https://books.google.com/books?id=g8eIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113

[56] Jump up^ Sinclair Hood (1971), The Minoans; The Story of Bronze Age Crete, pp. 83

[57] Jump up^ Patricia Rosof Family History p.12

[58] Jump up^ [2]

[google.com-59] Jump up to:^a ^b « Classical Views ». Classical Association of Canada. 1 January 2000 – via Google Books.

[60] Jump up^ Nilsson, Martin Persson (1 January 1950). « The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion and Its Survival in Greek Religion ». Biblo & Tannen Publishers – via Google Books.

[61] Jump up^ « Minoan Dress ».

[62] Jump up^ Hood, Sinclair. The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age. Thames and Hudson, 1971, pg.114

[Hood,_Sinclair_1971,_pg.111-63] Jump up to:^a ^b Hood, Sinclair. The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age. Thames and Hudson, 1971, pg.111

[64] Jump up^ Davis, Simon (1 January 1960). « The Decipherment of the Linear A and Linear B Scripts of the Minoan Crete and Mycenaean Greece: Inaugural Lecture Delivered 15 April 1959 ». Witwatersrand University Press – via Google Books.

[Tyrwhitt2015-65] Jump up^ Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (1 May 2015). Society and Environment: A Historical Review. Taylor & Francis. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-317-43466-5.

[Johnston2004-66] Jump up^ Sarah Iles Johnston (2004). Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide. Harvard University Press. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-674-01517-3.

[67] Jump up^ Bury, J. B.; Meiggs, Russell (1956). A history of Greece to the death of Alexander the Great (3 ed.). London: Macmillan. p. 18.

[68] Jump up^ Burn, A. R. (1988). The Pelican history of Greece. Penguin. p. 38.

[69] Jump up^ Hammond, N. G. L. (1967). A history of Greece to 322 B. C. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 30.

[70] Jump up^ Hood, Sinclair (1967). The home of the heroes: The Aegean before the Greeks. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 90.

[71] Jump up^ Evidence of Minoan Astronomy and Calendrical Practises

[72] Jump up^ Marinatos, Nanno. Minoan Kingship and the Solar Goddess: A Near Eastern Koine(2013).

[73] Jump up^ MacKenzie 1917, p. 59

[Marinatos-74] Jump up to:^a ^b Nanno Marinatos (2004). « Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations ». In Sarah Isles Johnston. Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide. Harvard University Press. pp. 206–207. ISBN 978-0674015173.

[75] Jump up^ [3] Sailors, Cara. “The Function of Mythology and Religion in Ancient Greek Society.” East Tennessee State University, Digital Commons, 2008, dc.etsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3471&context=etd.

[76] Jump up^ Harissis, Haralampos V.; Harissis, Anastasios V. (2009). Apiculture in the Prehistoric Aegean: Minoan and Mycenaean Symbols Revisited. British Archaeological Reports (S1958). ISBN 978-1-4073-0454-0.

[77] Jump up^ In the small courtyard of the east wing of the palace of Knossos.

[78] Jump up^ An ivory figure reproduced by Spyridon Marinatos and Max Hirmer, Crete and Mycenae (New York) 1960, fig. 97, also shows the bull dance.

[79] Jump up^ Sinclair Hood (1971) The Minoans; The Story of Bronze Age Crete, pp. 140

[80] Jump up^ Ian Douglas, Cities: An Environmental History, p. 16, I.B. Tauris: London and New York (2013)

[81] Jump up^ D. Preziosi and L.A. Hitchcock Aegean Art and Architecture pg. 48–9, Oxford University Press (1999)

[Moore2015-82] Jump up^ Dudley J. Moore (2015). In Search of the Classical World: An Introduction to the Ancient Aegean. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-4438-8145-6.

[Protopsaltis2012-83] Jump up^ Demetrios Protopsaltis (May 2012). An Encyclopedic Chronology of Greece and Its History. Xlibris Corporation. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-4691-3999-9.

[Perry2012-84] Jump up^ Marvin Perry (2012). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789. Cengage Learning. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-133-71418-7.

[85] Jump up^ Preziosi, D. & Hitchcock, L.A. (1999) pg. 86

[86] Jump up^ Preziosi, D. & Hitchcock, L.A. (1999) Pg. 121

[87] Jump up^ Scarre, Christopher; Stefoff, Rebecca (2003). « 4, Knossos Today ». The Palace of Minos at Knossos. New York: Oxford University. ISBN 978-0195142723.

[88] Jump up^ Castleden, Rodney (1990). The Knossos Labyrinth : A New View of the ‘Palace of Minos’ at Knossos. London: Routledge.

[89] Jump up^ J.B, Rose; A.N, Angelakis (2014). Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries. London: IWA Publishing. p. 2.

[90] Jump up^ J.B, Rose; A.N, Angelakis (2014). Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies Through the Centuries. London: IWA Publishing. p. 5.

[91] Jump up^ Benton and DiYanni 1998, p. 67.

[92] Jump up^ Bourbon 1998, p 34

[93] Jump up^ Letesson, Quentin. « Minoan Halls: A Syntactical Genealogy ». Retrieved 7 April2017.

[94] Jump up^ Hood, Sinclair (1985). « The Primitive Aspects of Minoan Artistic Convention ». Bulletin de Correspondence Héllenique. Suppl. 11: 21–26.

[95] Jump up^ https://books.google.com/books?id=hR5FBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA139

[96] Jump up^ Thomas Sakoulas. « Minoan Art ».

[97] Jump up^ « Greek Jewelry – AJU ».

[98] Jump up^ Hemingway, Séan (1 January 1996). « Minoan Metalworking in the Postpalatial Period: A Deposit of Metallurgical Debris from Palaikastro ». The Annual of the British School at Athens. 91: 213–252. doi:10.1017/s0068245400016488. JSTOR 30102549.

[99] Jump up^ Rehak, Paul (1997). « Aegean Art Before and After the LM IB Cretan Destructions ». In Laffineur, Robert; Betancourt, Philip P. TEXNH. Craftsmen, Craftswomen and Craftsmanship in the Aegean Bronze Age / Artisanat et artisans en Égée à l’âge du Bronze: Proceedings of the 6th International Aegean Conference / 6e Rencontre égéenne internationale, Philadelphia, Temple University, 18–21 April 1996. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l’art et archéologie de la Grèce antique. p. 145. ISBN 9781935488118.

[100] Jump up^ Clarke, Christina F. (2013). The Manufacture of Minoan Metal Vessels: Theory and Practice. Uppsala: Åströms Förlag. p. 1. ISBN 978-91-7081-249-1.

[101] Jump up^ Davis, Ellen N. (1977). The Vapheio Cups and Aegean Gold and Silver Ware. New York: Garland Pub. ISBN 9780824026813.

[102] Jump up^ Matthäus, Hartmut (1980). Die Bronzegefässe der kretisch-mykenischen Kultur. München: C.H. Beck. ISBN 9783406040023.

[103] Jump up^ Catling, Hector W. (1964). Cypriot Bronzework in the Mycenaean World. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 187.

[104] Jump up^ Davis 1977, pp. 328–352

[105] Jump up^ Niemeier, W.-B. « Mycenaean Knossos and the Age of Linear B ». Studi micenei ed egeoanatolici. 1982: 275.

[106] Jump up^ « Pax Minoica in Aegean – News – ekathimerini.com ».

[107] Jump up^ Alexiou wrote of fortifications and acropolises in Minoan Crete, in Kretologia 8 (1979), pp 41–56, and especially in C.G. Starr, « Minoan flower-lovers » in The Minoan Thalassocracy: Myth and Reality R. Hägg and N. Marinatos, eds. (Stockholm) 1994, pp 9–12.

[108] Jump up^ Gere, Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism

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[112] Jump up^ Early Aegean Warrior 5000–1450 BC Archived 2014-05-08 at the Wayback Machine. Osprey Publishing, 2013.

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[FOOTNOTEFloyd1999-114] Jump up^ Floyd 1999.

[115] Jump up^ Hood, S. The Minoans, 1971. Thames and Hudson Ltd: London

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[Sigurdsson-120] Jump up^ Sigurdsson H, Carey, S, Alexandri M, Vougioukalakis G, Croff K, Roman C, Sakellariou D, Anagnostou C, Rousakis G, Ioakim C, Gogou A, Ballas D, Misaridis T, & Nomikou P (2006). « Marine Investigations of Greece’s Santorini or Akrotiri Volcanic Field » (PDF). Eos. 87 (34): 337–348. Bibcode:2006EOSTr..87..337S. doi:10.1029/2006EO340001. Archived from the original (–^{Scholar search}) on June 30, 2007.

[121] Jump up^ Vergano, Dan (2006-08-27). « Ye gods! Ancient volcano could have blasted Atlantis myth ». USA Today. Retrieved 2008-03-09.

[122] Jump up^ Marinatos, S (1939). « The Volcanic Destruction of Minoan Crete ». Antiquity. 13: 425–439.

[123] Jump up^ Callender, G (1999). The Minoans and the Mycenaeans: Aegean Society in the Bronze Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195510283.

[Antonopoulos-124] Jump up to:^a ^b Antonopoulos, J. (1992). « The great Minoan eruption of Thera volcano and the ensuing tsunami in the Greek Archipelago ». Natural Hazards. 5 (2): 153–168. doi:10.1007/BF00127003.

[125] Jump up^ Pareschi, MT, Favalli, M & Boschi, E (2006). « Impact of the Minoan tsunami of Santorini: Simulated scenarios in the eastern Mediterranean ». Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (18): L18607. Bibcode:2006GeoRL..3318607P. doi:10.1029/2006GL027205.

[LaMoreaux-126] Jump up^ LaMoreaux, PE (1995). « Worldwide environmental impacts from the eruption of Thera ». Environmental Geology. 26 (3): 172–181. Bibcode:1995EnGeo..26..172L. doi:10.1007/BF00768739.

[127] Jump up^ Dickinson, O (1994) The Aegean Bronze Age pg. 22

[128] Jump up^ « Minoan Culture Survived Ancient Volcano, Evidence Shows ». The New York Times. 28 November 1989.

[129] Jump up^ Bruce Bowen: Mycenae and Minoan Crete, 2000,

[130] Jump up^ Sinclair Hood (1971), The Minoans; The Story of Bronze Age Crete, pp. 58

[FOOTNOTEPendleburyEvans2003-131] Jump up^ Pendlebury & Evans 2003.

[132] Jump up^ C. Michael Hogan, « Knossos fieldnotes », Modern Antiquarian (2007)

[133] Jump up^ Katz, Brigit. « DNA Analysis Sheds Light on the Mysterious Origins of the Ancient Greeks ». Smithsonian.

[Stamatoyannopoulos-134] Jump up to:^a ^b Hughey, Jeffrey (2013). « A European population in Minoan Bronze Age Crete ». Nature Communications. 4: 1861. Bibcode:2013NatCo…4E1861H. doi:10.1038/ncomms2871. Retrieved 19 May 2013.

[livescience.com-135] Jump up to:^a ^b Tia Ghose, LiveScience: “Mysterious Minoans Were European, DNA Finds”, 2013,

[136] Jump up^ « Minoans Were European, Genetic Study Reveals – Ancient Civilizations ». LiveScience.com.

[137] Jump up^ Wolinsky, Howard (2008). « Our history, our genes. Population genetics lets researchers look back in time at human migrations ». EMBO Reports. 9: 127–9. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7401164. PMC 2246420 . PMID 18246104.

[138] Jump up^ Fernández, E; Pérez-Pérez, A; Gamba, C; Prats, E; Cuesta, P; et al. (2014). « Ancient DNA Analysis of 8000 B.C. Near Eastern Farmers Supports an Early Neolithic Pioneer Maritime Colonization of Mainland Europe through Cyprus and the Aegean Islands ». PLoS Genet. 10 (6): e1004401. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004401.

[139] Jump up^ Martinz, L; Mirabal, S; Luiz, JR; Herrera, RJ; et al. (2008). « Middle Eastern and European mtDNA lineages characterize populations from eastern Crete ». Am J Phys Anthropol. 137: 213–23. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20857. PMID 18500747.

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Date	6 avril – 29 mai 1453
Lieu	Constantinople (actuellement Istanbul)
Issue	Victoire ottomane décisive Chute de l’Empire byzantin

Giacobbe Giusti, Chute de Constantinople

Contexte

Un empire à l’agonie

Arrivée de Mehmed II

Préparation du siège

Constantinople appelle à l’aide

Passivité des États occidentaux[modifier | modifier le code]

Ambiguïté des États italiens

Forces en présence

Les Ottomans

Les Byzantins

Effectifs

Armement et l’état des murailles

Disposition des forces

Déroulement de la bataille

Premiers jours

Arrivée des troupes ottomanes

Premiers combats

Bataille du 20 avril

Exploit de la Corne d’Or[modifier | modifier le code]

Question des renforts vénitiens

Une lutte continuelle

Derniers jours

Assaut final

Premières vagues

Troisième vague et la victoire ottomane

Prise de la ville

Conséquences

D’un empire à l’autre

Fin d’un empire à la dérive

Naissance d’une grande puissance

Réactions occidentales

Fin du Moyen Âge ?

Sources

Dans les arts

Notes et références

Notes

Références]

Sources primaires

Ouvrages modernes sur l’Empire byzantin

Ouvrages modernes sur la prise de Constantinople

Articles modernes sur la prise de Constantinople

Ouvrages et articles sur l’Empire ottoman

Ouvrages et articles sur des sujets connexes

Filmographie

Annexes

Articles connexes

Giacobbe Giusti, Minoan civilization

Etymology

Chronology and history

Overview

Early Minoan

Middle Minoan

Late Minoan

Foreign influence

Geography

Settlements

Beyond Crete

Agriculture and cuisine

Tools

Society and culture

Saffron trade

Fashion

Language and writing

Religion

Symbolism

Burial practices

Architecture

Palaces

Plumbing

Columns

Villas

Art

Pottery

Jewelry

Metal vessels

Warfare and the « Minoan peace »

Skepticism and weaponry

Collapse

Genetic studies