Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Michelangelo, lunetta, Jacob – Joseph

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Perugino: Taufe Christi

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Botticelli: Begebenheiten aus dem Leben des Mose

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Ghirlandaio: The.Calling.of.the.First.Apostles

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Perugino, Consegna delle chiavi

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Botticcelli, Sandro – The Punishment of Korah and the Stoning of Moses and Aaron

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

V&A – Raphael, St Paul Preaching in Athens

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Signorelli: Testament und Tod Mose

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Sistine Chapel ceiling, Michelangelo, The Libyan Sibyl

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Rosselli: Die Bergpredigt

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Detail from The Last Judgement by Michelangelo

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Rosselli: Das letzte Abendmahl

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Hendrick van den Broeck Resurrection of Christ

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Michelangelo – Fresco of the Last Judgement

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Creazione di Adamo

Michelangelo Buonarroti 

Sistine Chapel Cappella Sistina(Italian) Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel
Sistine Chapel, from the altar end
Location on a map of Vatican City
Basic information
Location	Vatican City
Affiliation	Roman Catholic
District	Diocese of Rome
Country	Vatican City
Year consecrated	15 August 1483
Ecclesiastical or organizational status	Papal oratory
Leadership	Francis
Website	mv.vatican.va
Architectural description
Architect(s)	Baccio Pontelli, Giovanni de Dolci[1]
Architectural type	Church
Groundbreaking	1473[1]
Completed	1481[1]
Specifications
Length	40.9 metres (134 ft)
Width (nave)	13.4 metres (44 ft)
Height (max)	20.7 metres (68 ft)
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name: Vatican City
Type	Cultural
Criteria	i, ii, iv, vi
Designated	1984[2]
Reference no.	286
State Party	Holy See
Region	Europe and North America

The Sistine Chapel(/ˌsɪstiːn ˈtʃæpəl/; Latin: Sacellum Sixtinum; Italian: Cappella Sistina[kapˈpɛlla siˈstiːna]) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the Pope, in Vatican City. Originally known as the Cappella Magna, the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who restored it between 1477 and 1480. Since that time, the chapel has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today it is the site of the Papal conclave, the process by which a new pope is selected. The fame of the Sistine Chapel lies mainly in the frescos that decorate the interior, and most particularly the Sistine Chapel ceiling and The Last Judgment by Michelangelo.

During the reign of Sixtus IV, a team of Renaissance painters that included Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli, created a series of frescos depicting the Life of Moses and the Life of Christ, offset by papal portraits above and trompe l’oeil drapery below. These paintings were completed in 1482, and on 15 August 1483 Sixtus IV celebrated the first mass in the Sistine Chapel for the Feast of the Assumption, at which ceremony the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.^[3][4]

Between 1508 and 1512, under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo painted the chapel’s ceiling, a project which changed the course of Western art and is regarded as one of the major artistic accomplishments of human civilization.^[5][6] In a different climate after the Sack of Rome, he returned and between 1535 and 1541, painted The Last Judgment for Popes Clement VII and Paul III.^[7]The fame of Michelangelo’s paintings has drawn multitudes of visitors to the chapel ever since they were revealed five hundred years ago.

History

While known as the location of Papal conclaves, the primary function of the Sistine Chapel is as the chapel of the Papal Chapel(Cappella Pontificia), one of the two bodies of the Papal household, called until 1968 the Papal Court(Pontificalis Aula). At the time of Pope Sixtus IV in the late 15th century, the Papal Chapelcomprised about 200 people, including clerics, officials of the Vatican and distinguished laity. There were 50 occasions during the year on which it was prescribed by the Papal Calendar that the whole Papal Chapel should meet.^[8] Of these 50 occasions, 35 were masses, of which 8 were held in Basilicas, in general St. Peter’s, and were attended by large congregations. These included the Christmas Day and Easter masses, at which the Pope himself was the celebrant. The other 27 masses could be held in a smaller, less public space, for which the Cappella Maggiore was used before it was rebuilt on the same site as the Sistine Chapel.

The Cappella Maggiore derived its name, the Greater Chapel, from the fact that there was another chapel also in use by the Pope and his retinue for daily worship. At the time of Pope Sixtus IV, this was the Chapel of Pope Nicholas V, which had been decorated by Fra Angelico. The Cappella Maggiore is recorded as existing in 1368. According to a communication from Andreas of Trebizond to Pope Sixtus IV, by the time of its demolition to make way for the present chapel, the Cappella Maggiore was in a ruinous state with its walls leaning.^[9]

The Sistine Chapel as it may have appeared in the 15th century (19th-century drawing)

The present chapel, on the site of the Cappella Maggiore, was designed by Baccio Pontelli for Pope Sixtus IV, for whom it is named, and built under the supervision of Giovannino de Dolci between 1473 and 1481.^[1] The proportions of the present chapel appear to closely follow those of the original. After its completion, the chapel was decorated with frescoes by a number of the most famous artists of the High Renaissance, including Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Pietro Perugino, and Michelangelo.^[9]

The first mass in the Sistine Chapel was celebrated on 15 August 1483, the Feast of the Assumption, at which ceremony the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.^[10]

The Sistine Chapel has maintained its function to the present day, and continues to host the important services of the Papal Calendar, unless the Pope is travelling. There is a permanent choir, the Sistine Chapel Choir, for whom much original music has been written, the most famous piece being Gregorio Allegri‘s Miserere.^[11]

Papal conclave

Main article: Papal conclave

One of the functions of the Sistine Chapel is as a venue for the election of each successive pope in a conclave of the College of Cardinals. On the occasion of a conclave, a chimney is installed in the roof of the chapel, from which smoke arises as a signal. If white smoke appears, created by burning the ballots of the election, a new Pope has been elected. If a candidate receives less than a two-thirds vote, the cardinals send up black smoke — created by burning the ballots along with wet straw and chemical additives — it means that no successful election has yet occurred.^[12]

The conclave also provided for the cardinals a space in which they can hear mass, and in which they can eat, sleep, and pass time attended by servants. From 1455, conclaves have been held in the Vatican; until the Great Schism, they were held in the Dominican convent of Santa Maria sopra Minerva.^[13] Since 1996, John Paul II‘s Apostolic ConstitutionUniversi Dominici gregis requires the cardinals to be lodged in the Domus Sanctae Marthae during a papal conclave, but to continue to vote in the Sistine Chapel.^[14]

Canopies for each cardinal-elector were once used during conclaves—a sign of equal dignity. After the new Pope accepts his election, he would give his new name; at this time, the other Cardinals would tug on a rope attached to their seats to lower their canopies. Until reforms instituted by Saint Pius X, the canopies were of different colours to designate which Cardinals had been appointed by which Pope. Paul VI abolished the canopies altogether, since, under his papacy, the population of the College of Cardinals had increased so much to the point that they would need to be seated in rows of two against the walls, making the canopies obstruct the view of the cardinals in the back row.

Architecture

Structure

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Exterior of the Sistine Chapel

The chapel is a high rectangular building, for which absolute measurements are hard to ascertain, as available measurements are for the interior: 40.9 metres (134 ft) long by 13.4 metres (44 ft) wide, the dimensionsof the Temple of Solomon, as given in the Old Testament.^[15]

Its exterior is unadorned by architectural or decorative details, as is common in many Italian churches of the Medieval and Renaissanceeras. It has no exterior façade or exterior processional doorways, as the ingress has always been from internal rooms within the Apostolic Palace (Papal Palace), and the exterior can be seen only from nearby windows and light-wells in the palace. Subsidence and cracking of masonry such as must also have affected the Cappella Maggiore has necessitated the building of very large buttresses to brace the exterior walls. The accretion of other buildings has further altered the exterior appearance of the Chapel.

The building is divided into three stories of which the lowest is a very tall basement level with several utilitarian windows and a doorway giving onto the exterior court. Internally, the basement is robustly vaulted to support the chapel. Above is the main space, the Sistine Chapel, the vaulted ceiling rising to 20.7 metres (68 ft). The building had six tall arched windows down each side and two at either end, several of which have been blocked. Above the vault is a third story with wardrooms for guards. At this level, an open projecting gangway was constructed, which encircled the building supported on an arcade springing from the walls. The gangway has been roofed as it was a continual source of water leaking in to the vault of the Chapel.

A reconstruction of the appearance of the chapel in the 1480s, prior to the painting of the ceiling.

The general proportions of the chapel use the length as the unit of measurement. This has been divided by three to get the width and by two to get the height. Maintaining the ratio, there were six windows down each side and two at either end. Defined proportions were a feature of Renaissance architectureand reflected the growing interest in the Classical heritage of Rome.

The ceiling of the chapel is a flattened barrel vault springing from a course that encircles the walls at the level of the springing of the window arches. This barrel vault is cut transversely by smaller vaults over each window, which divide the barrel vault at its lowest level into a series of large pendentives rising from shallow pilasters between each window. The barrel vault was originally painted brilliant-blue and dotted with gold stars, to the design of Piermatteo Lauro de’ Manfredi da Amelia.^[9] The pavement is in opus alexandrinum, a decorative style using marble and coloured stone in a pattern that reflects the earlier proportion in the division of the interior and also marks the processional way from the main door, used by the Pope on important occasions such as Palm Sunday.

A screen or transenna in marble by Mino da Fiesole, Andrea Bregno, and Giovanni Dalmata divides the chapel into two parts.^[16] Originally these made equal space for the members of the Papal Chapel within the sanctuary near the altar and the pilgrims and townsfolk without. However, with growth in the number of those attending the Pope, the screen was moved giving a reduced area for the faithful laity. The transenna is surmounted by a row of ornate candlesticks, once gilt, and has a wooden door, where once there was an ornate door of gilded wrought iron. The sculptors of the transenna also provided the cantoriaor projecting choir gallery.

Decoration

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Diagram of part of the vertical fresco decoration of the Sistine Chapel

The first stage in the decoration of the Sistine Chapel was the painting of the ceiling in blue, studded with gilt stars, and with decorative borders around the architectural details of the pendentives. This was entirely replaced when Michelangelo came to work on the ceiling in 1508.

Of the present scheme of frescos, the earliest part is that of the side walls. They are divided into three main tiers. The central tier of the walls has two cycles of paintings, which complement each other, The Life of Moses and The Life of Christ. They were commissioned in 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV and executed by Domenico Ghirlandaio, Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Cosimo Roselli and their workshops. They originally ran all round the walls, but have since been replaced on both end walls.

The project was perhaps supervised by Perugino, who arrived at the chapel prior to the Florentines. It is probable that the commission of Ghirlandaio, Botticelli and Roselli was part of a reconciliation project between Lorenzo de’ Medici, the de facto ruler of Florence, and Pope Sixtus IV. The Florentines started to work in the Sistine Chapel in the Spring of 1481.

Beneath the cycles of The Life of Moses and The Life of Christ, the lower level of the walls is decorated with frescoed hangings in silver and gold. Above the narrative frescos, the upper tier is divided into two zones. At the lower level of the windows is a Gallery of Popespainted at the same time as the Lives. Around the arched tops of the windows are areas known as the lunettes which contain the Ancestors of Christ, painted by Michelangelo as part of the scheme for the ceiling.

The ceiling was commissioned by Pope Julius II and painted by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512. The commission was originally to paint the twelve apostles on the triangular pendentives which support the vault; however, Michelangelo demanded a free hand in the pictorial content of the scheme. He painted a series of nine pictures showing God’s Creation of the World, God’s Relationship with Mankind, and Mankind’s Fall from God’s Grace. On the large pendentives he painted twelve Biblical and Classical men and women who prophesied that God would send Jesus Christ for the salvation of mankind, and around the upper parts of the windows, the Ancestors of Christ.

In 1515, Raphael was commissioned by Pope Leo X to design a series of ten tapestries to hang around the lower tier of the walls.^[17] The tapestries depict events from the Life of St. Peter and the Life of St. Paul, the founders of the Christian Church in Rome, as described in the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. Work began in mid-1515. Due to their large size, manufacture of the hangings was carried out in Brussels, and took four years under the hands of the weavers in the shop of Pieter van Aelst.^[18] Raphael’s tapestries were looted during the Sack of Rome in 1527 and were either burnt for their precious metal content or were scattered around Europe. In the late 20th century, a set was reassembled from several further sets that had been made after the first set, and displayed again in the Sistine Chapel in 1983. The tapestries continue in use at occasional ceremonies of particular importance. The full-size preparatory cartoonsfor seven of the ten tapestries are known as the Raphael Cartoons and are in London.^[19]

At this point, the decorative scheme displayed a consistent iconographical pattern. The tier of Popes, which, in the scheme intended by Pope Julius, would have appeared immediately below the Twelve Apostles, would have emphasised the apostolic succession. It has been argued that the present scheme shows the two Biblical Testaments merged in order to reveal the Old predicting and framing the New, synthesizing, the logic of the Christian Bible.^[20]

This was disrupted by a further commission to Michelangelo to decorate the wall above the altar with The Last Judgment, 1537–1541. The painting of this scene necessitated the obliteration of two episodes from the Lives, the Nativity of Jesus and the Finding of Moses; several of the Popes and two sets of Ancestors.

Frescoes

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Trials of Moses by Botticelli

The southern wall is decorated with the Stories of Moses, painted in 1481–1482. Starting from the altar, they include:

• Moses Leaving to Egypt by Pietro Perugino and assistants
• The Trials of Moses by Sandro Botticelli and his workshop
• The Crossing of the Red Sea by Cosimo Rosselli, Domenico Ghirlandaio or Biagio di Antonio Tucci
• Descent from Mount Sinai by Cosimo Rosselli or Piero di Cosimo
• Punishment of the Rebels by Sandro Botticelli
• Testament and Death of Mosesby Luca Signorelli or Bartolomeo della Gatta

Northern wall

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

The Delivery of the Keys by Perugino

The northern wall houses the Stories of Jesus, dating to 1481–1482. They include:

• Baptism of Christ by Pietro Perugino and assistants
• Temptation of Christ by Sandro Botticelli
• Vocation of the Apostles by Domenico Ghirlandaio
• The Sermon on the Mount, attributed to Cosimo Rosselli
• The Delivery of the Keys by Pietro Perugino
• The Last Supper by Cosimo Rosselli

Eastern wall

• Resurrection of Christ

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

• 

  Resurrection of Christ

  by Hendrick van den Broeck (1572) over Domenico Ghirlandaio’s original

 

• Disputation over Moses’ Body by Matteo da Lecce (1574) over Luca Signorelli’s original

Michelangelo’s frescoes

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo

Michelangelo was commissioned by Pope Julius II in 1508 to repaint the vault, or ceiling, of the Chapel. It was originally painted as golden stars on a blue sky. The work was completed between 1508 and 2 November 1512.^[21] He painted the Last Judgment over the altar, between 1535 and 1541, on commission from Pope Paul IIIFarnese.^[22]

Michelangelo was intimidated by the scale of the commission, and made it known from the outset of Julius II’s approach that he would prefer to decline. He felt he was more of a sculptor than a painter, and was suspicious that such a large-scale project was being offered to him by enemies as a set-up for an inevitable fall. For Michelangelo, the project was a distraction from the major marble sculpture that had preoccupied him for the previous few years.^[23]

The sources of Michelangelo’s inspiration are not easily determined; both Joachite and Augustinian theologians were within the sphere of Julius influence.^[24]

Ceiling

: Sistine Chapel ceiling

: Gallery of Sistine Chapel ceiling

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

A section of the Sistine Chapel ceiling

To be able to reach the ceiling, Michelangelo needed a support; the first idea was by Julius’ favoured architect Donato Bramante, who wanted to build for him a scaffold to be suspended in the air with ropes. However, Bramante did not successfully complete the task, and the structure he built was flawed. He had perforated the vault in order to lower strings to secure the scaffold. Michelangelo laughed when he saw the structure, and believed it would leave holes in the ceiling once the work was ended. He asked Bramante what was to happen when the painter reached the perforations, but the architect had no answer.

The matter was taken before the Pope, who ordered Michelangelo to build a scaffold of his own. Michelangelo created a flat wooden platform on brackets built out from holes in the wall, high up near the top of the windows. Contrary to popular belief, he did not lie on this scaffolding while he painted, but painted from a standing position.^[25]

Michelangelo used bright colours, easily visible from the floor. On the lowest part of the ceiling he painted the ancestors of Christ. Above this he alternated male and female prophets, with Jonah over the altar. On the highest section, Michelangelo painted nine stories from the Book of Genesis. He was originally commissioned to paint only 12 figures, the Apostles. He turned down the commission because he saw himself as a sculptor, not a painter. The Pope offered to allow Michelangelo to paint biblical scenes of his own choice as a compromise. After the work was finished, there were more than 300. His figures showed the creation, Adam and Evein the Garden of Eden, and the Great Flood.

The painted area is about 40 m (131 ft) long by 13 m (43 ft) wide. This means that Michelangelo painted well over 5,000 square feet (460 m²) of frescoes.^[26]

Last Judgement

Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel

Michelangelo’s The Last Judgement.

 The Last Judgment (Michelangelo)

The Last Judgement was painted by Michelangelo from 1535 to 1541, between two important historic events, the Sack of Rome by mercenary forces of the Holy Roman Empire in 1527 and the Council of Trent which commenced in 1545. The work was designed on a grand scale, and spans the entire wall behind the altar of the Sistine Chapel. The painting depicts the second coming of Christ on the Day of Judgment as described in the Revelation of John, Chapter 20. High on the wall is the heroic figure of Christ, with the saints clustered in groups around him. At the bottom left of the painting the dead are raised from their graves and ascend to be judged. To the right are those who are assigned to Hell and are dragged down by demons.

The Last Judgement was an object of a bitter dispute between Cardinal Carafa and Michelangelo. Because he depicted naked figures, the artist was accused of immorality and obscenity. A censorship campaign (known as the « Fig-Leaf Campaign ») was organized by Carafa and Monsignor Sernini (Mantua‘s ambassador) to remove the frescoes.

The Pope’s Master of Ceremonies Biagio da Cesena said « it was most disgraceful that in so sacred a place there should have been depicted all those nude figures, exposing themselves so shamefully, and that it was no work for a papal chapel but rather for the public baths and taverns, »^[27] In response Michelangelo worked da Cesena’s semblance into the scene as Minos, judge of the underworld. It is said that when he complained to the Pope, the pontiff responded that his jurisdiction did not extend to hell, so the portrait would have to remain. Michelangelo also painted his own portrait, on the flayed skin held by St Bartholomew.

The genitalia in the fresco were later covered by the artist Daniele da Volterra, whom history remembers by the derogatory nickname « Il Braghettone » (« the breeches-painter »).

Restoration and controversy

Main article: Restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes

The Sistine Chapel’s ceiling restoration began on 7 November 1984. The restoration complete, the chapel was re-opened to the public on 8 April 1994. The part of the restoration in the Sistine Chapel that has caused the most concern is the ceiling, painted by Michelangelo. The emergence of the brightly coloured Ancestors of Christ from the gloom sparked a reaction of fear that the processes being employed in the cleaning were too severe and removed the original intent of the artist.

Daniel, before and after restoration.

The problem lies in the analysis and understanding of the techniques utilised by Michelangelo, and the technical response of the restorers to that understanding. A close examination of the frescoes of the lunettes convinced the restorers that Michelangelo worked exclusively in « buon fresco« ; that is, the artist worked only on freshly laid plaster and each section of work was completed while the plaster was still in its fresh state. In other words, Michelangelo did not work « a secco« ; he did not come back later and add details onto the dry plaster.

The restorers, by assuming that the artist took a universal approach to the painting, have taken a universal approach to the restoration. A decision was made that all of the shadowy layer of animal glue and « lamp black », all of the wax, and all of the overpainted areas were contamination of one sort or another: smoke deposits, earlier restoration attempts, and painted definition by later restorers in an attempt to enliven the appearance of the work. Based on this decision, according to Arguimbau’s critical reading of the restoration data that have been provided, the chemists of the restoration team decided upon a solvent that would effectively strip the ceiling down to its paint-impregnated plaster. After treatment, only that which was painted « buon fresco » would remain.^{[citation needed]}

Replicas

The only reproduction of the Sistine Chapel ceiling was painted by Gary Bevans at a church in Goring-by-Sea, West Sussex, England.^[28] A full-size architectural and photographic replica of the entire building was commissioned by the Mexican Government and funded by private donors.^[29] It was on view at Mexico City from June 1 to July 15, 2016; it may then be exhibited at other Mexican cities and possibly elsewhere in the world. It took 2.6 million high definition photographs to reproduce the totality of the frescoes and tapestries.^[30] A video of the history of the Chapel is shown to the visitors before entering the building; inside, a light-and-sound demonstration explains the content of each of the frescoes.

Quotes on Michelangelo’s frescoes in the Sistine Chapel

« Without having seen the Sistine Chapel one can form no appreciable idea of what one man is capable of achieving. »

— Johann Wolfgang Goethe, 23 August 1787, ^[31]

« This work has been and truly is a beacon of our art, and it has brought such benefit and enlightenment to the art of painting that it was sufficient to illuminate a world which for so many hundreds of years had remained in the state of darkness. And, to tell the truth, anyone who is a painter no longer needs to concern himself about seeing innovations and inventions, new ways of painting poses, clothing on figures, and various awe-inspiring details, for Michelangelo gave to this work all the perfection that can be given to such details. »

— Giorgio Vasari on Michelangelo’s frescoes in the Sistine Chapel

• Architecture portal
• Catholicism portal
• Vatican City portal

• Art patronage of Julius II
• Italian Renaissance painting
• Index of Vatican City-related articles
• Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore
• Miserere (Allegri)

References

Citations

1. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Ekelund, Hébert & Tollison 2006, p. 313
2. Jump up^ Vatican City, Whc.unesco.org, retrieved 9 August 2011
3. Jump up^ Pietrangeli 1986, p. 28
4. Jump up^ Monfasani, John (1983), « A Description of the Sistine Chapel under Pope Sixtus IV », Artibus et Historiae, IRSA s.c., 4 (7): 9–18, doi:10.2307/1483178, ISSN 0391-9064, JSTOR 1483178.
5. Jump up^ Gardner, Helen (1970) Art through the Ages, p. 469, Harcourt, Brace and World. ISBN 978-0-15-508315-8
6. Jump up^ Robert Coughlan, The World of Michelangelo, Time-Life International, (1966) p. 116
7. Jump up^ Robert Coughlan, p. 127
8. Jump up^ Pietrangeli 1986, p. 24
9. ^ Jump up to:^a b c John Shearman, « The Chapel of Sixtus IV ». In Pietrangeli 1986
10. Jump up^ « The Sistine Chapel », Vatican Museums, retrieved 9 August 2013
11. Jump up^ Stevens, Abel & Floy, James. « Allegri’s Miserere ». The National Magazine, Carlton & Phillip, 1854. 531.
12. Jump up^ Saunders, Fr. William P. « The Path to the Papacy« . Arlington Catholic Herald, 17 March 2005. Retrieved on 2 June 2008.
13. Jump up^ Chambers, D. S. (1978), « Papal Conclaves and Prophetic Mystery in the Sistine Chapel », Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, The Warburg Institute, 41: 322–326, doi:10.2307/750878, JSTOR 750878.
14. Jump up^ « Interesting Conclave Facts ». ewtn.com.
15. Jump up^ Campbell, Ian (1981), « The New St Peter’s: Basilica or Temple? » (PDF), Oxford Art Journal, 4 (1): 3–8, doi:10.1093/oxartj/4.1.3, ISSN 0142-6540, archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2015.
16. Jump up^ Hersey 1993, p. 180
17. Jump up^ Talvacchia 2007, p. 150
18. Jump up^ Talvacchia 2007, p. 152
19. Jump up^ Cheney, Iris. Review of « Raphael’s Cartoons in the Collection of Her Majesty The Queen and the Tapestries for the Sistine Chapel » by John Shearman ». The Art Bulletin, Volume 56, No. 4, December 1974. 607–609.
20. Jump up^ Oliveira, Paulo Martins « The Sistine Chapel and the two Testaments« , 2013, (online, academia.edu)
21. Jump up^ Graham-Dixon 2008, p. 2
22. Jump up^ Stollhans, Cynthia (1988), « Michelangelo’s Nude Saint Catherine of Alexandria », Woman’s Art Journal, Woman’s Art, Inc., 19 (1): 26–30, doi:10.2307/1358651, ISSN 0270-7993, JSTOR 1358651.
23. Jump up^ Graham-Dixon 2008, p. 1
24. Jump up^ Graham-Dixon 2008, p. xii
25. Jump up^ 7 Things You May Not Know About the Sistine Chapel
26. Jump up^ Michelangelo – The Sistine Chapel Ceiling, « Seven Common Questions About the Frescoes »
27. Jump up^ Vasari 1987, p. 379
28. Jump up^ Welcome to The Sistine Chapel Reproduction United Kingdom
29. Jump up^ Vatican Approves $2.4 Million Replica of Sistine Chapel in Mexico City
30. Jump up^ Full-size replica of Vatican’s Sistine Chapel opens in Mexico City
31. Jump up^ Letter. Original: (in German) Ich kann euch nicht ausdrücken, wie sehr ich euch zu mir gewünscht habe, damit ihr nur einen Begriff hättet, was ein einziger und ganzer Mensch machen und ausrichten kann; ohne die Sixtinische Kapelle gesehen zu haben, kann man sich keinen anschauenden Begriff machen, was ein Mensch vermag. Italian Journey, 2nd journey to Rome.^{Italienische Reise, Teil 21}

Bibliography

• Deimling, Barbara (2000), Sandro Botticelli 1444/45–1510, Köln: Taschen, ISBN 3-8228-5992-3
• Earls, Irene (1987), Renaissance Art: A Topical Dictionary, Westport: Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-24658-0
• Ekelund, Robert B.; Hébert, Robert F.; Tollison, Robert D. (2006), The Marketplace of Christianity, Cambridge: MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-05082-X
• Graham-Dixon, Andrew (2008), Michelangelo and the Sistine Chapel, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-85365-1
• Hersey, George (1993), High Renaissance Art in St. Peter’s and the Vatican, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-32782-5
• Michelangelo (1999), Bull, George, ed., Michelangelo, Life, Letters, and Poetry, Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-283770-2
• Pietrangeli, Carlo, ed. (1986), The Sistine Chapel, New York: Harmony Books, ISBN 0-517-56274-X
• Seymour, Charles (1972), Michelangelo, the Sistine Chapel Ceiling: illustrations, introductory essays, backgrounds and sources, critical essay, New York: W. W. Norton, ISBN 0-393-04319-3
• Stinger, Charles (1998), The Renaissance in Rome, Bloomington: Indianapolis, ISBN 0-253-21208-1
• Talvacchia, Bette (2007), Raphael, Oxford Oxfordshire: Phaidon Press, ISBN 978-0-7148-4786-3
• Vasari, Giorgio (1987), The Lives of the Artists, George Bull, New York: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-044500-5
• Wright, Lawrence (1983), Perspective in Perspective, London: Routledge & K. Paul, ISBN 0-7100-0791-4

Further reading

• Ettlinger, Leopold (1965), The Sistine Chapel before Michelangelo: Religious Imagery and Papal Primacy, Oxford: Clarendon Press, OCLC 230168041
• King, Ross (2003), Michelangelo & the Pope’s Ceiling, New York: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-200369-7
• Lewine, Carol (1993), The Sistine Chapel Walls and the Roman Liturgy, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, ISBN 0-271-00792-3
• Hirst, Michael; Colalucci, Gianluigi; Mancinelli, Fabrizio; Shearman, John; Winner, Matthias; Maeder, Edward; De Vecchi, Pierluigi; Nazzareno, Gabrielli; et al. (1994), Pietrangeli, Carlo, ed., The Sistine Chapel: A Glorious Restoration, Takashi Okamura (photographer), New York: H.N. Abrams, ISBN 0-8109-3840-5
• Pfeiffer, Heinrich (2007), Die Sixtinische Kapelle neu entdeckt (in German), Stuttgart: Belser, ISBN 978-0-8109-3840-3
• Stone, Irving (2004), The Agony and the Ecstasy, London: Nal Trade, ISBN 0-451-21323-8. Previously publish by Doubleday in 1961; a novel.
• Blech, Benjamin; Doliner, Roy (2008), The Sistine Secrets: Michelangelo’s Forbidden Messages in the Heart of the Vatican, New York: HarperOne, ISBN 978-0-06-146904-6
• The Vatican: spirit and art of Christian Rome. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1982. ISBN 0-87099-348-8.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistine_Chapel

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollon sauroctone, représentant peut-être le meurtre du serpent Python, musée du Louvre

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollon et sa sœur Artémis entourant le palmier où leur mère leur a donné naissance, cratère du Peintre de Comacchio, vers 450 av. J.-C., (musée archéologique national de Madrid).

 

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo del Tevere, copia romana, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollon und Daphne, Gemälde von Antonio Pollaiuolo(um 1475)

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollon mit Kithara (Fresko, Haus des Augustus, heute im Palatin Antiquarium in Rom, ca. 20 v. Chr.)

Apollo Kitharoidos. Painted plaster, Roman artwork from the Augustan period. From the Scalae Caci on the Palatine Hill. Antiquarium of the Palatine,

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollon-Statue mit Pfeil und Bogen (ist hier abgebrochen), heute im Ashmolean Museum, Oxford

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollon citharède versant une libation, médaillon d’une coupe attique à fond blanc attribuée au Peintre de Pistoxénos, musée archéologique de Delphes

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

The Omphalos in the Museum of Delphi

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo (left) and Artemis. Brygos(potter signed), tondo of an Attic red-figure cup c. 470 BC, Musée du Louvre.

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo with his lyre. Statue from Pergamon Museum, Berlin.

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo, West Pediment Olympia. Munich, copy from original, 460 BCE at the Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Greece.

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

New York Kouros, Met. Mus. 32.11.1, marble (620–610 BC), Metropolitan Museum of Art

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo Citharoedus (« Apollo with a kithara »), Musei Capitolini, Rome

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Piraeus Apollo, archaic-style bronze, Archaeological Museum of Piraeus

 

Apollo
God of music, poetry, art, oracles, archery, plague, medicine, sun, light and knowledge Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO
Apollo Belvedere, ca. 120–140 CE
Abode	Mount Olympus
Symbol	Lyre, laurel wreath, python, raven, Swan, bow and arrows
Personal Information
Children	Asclepius, Troilus, Aristaeus, Orpheus
Parents	Zeus and Leto
Siblings	Artemis, Aeacus, Angelos, Aphrodite, Ares, Athena, Dionysus, Eileithyia, Enyo, Eris, Ersa, Hebe, Helen of Troy, Hephaestus, Heracles, Hermes, Minos, Pandia, Persephone, Perseus, Rhadamanthus, the Graces, the Horae, the Litae, the Muses, the Moirai
Roman equivalent	Apollo

Part of a series on
Ancient Greek religion
Features[show]
Godheads[show]
Ethics[show]
Practices[show]
Sacred places[show]
Texts[show]
History[show]
Hellenismos portal

Apollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: Ἀπόλλων, Apollōn (GENἈπόλλωνος); Doric: Ἀπέλλων, Apellōn; Arcadocypriot: Ἀπείλων, Apeilōn; Aeolic: Ἄπλουν, Aploun; Latin: Apollō) is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. The ideal of the kouros (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of music, truth and prophecy, healing, the sun and light, plague, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu.^[1]

As the patron of Delphi (Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius, yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague. Amongst the god’s custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over colonists, and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the Muses (Apollon Musegetes) and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. Hermes created the lyre for him, and the instrument became a common attribute of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called paeans.

In Hellenistic times, especially during the 3rd century BCE, as Apollo Helios he became identified among Greeks with Helios, Titangod of the sun, and his sister Artemis similarly equated with Selene, Titan goddess of the moon.^[2] In Latin texts, on the other hand, Joseph Fontenrosedeclared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with Sol among the Augustan poets of the 1st century, not even in the conjurations of Aeneas and Latinus in Aeneid XII (161–215).^[3]Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd century CE.

Etymology

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo seated with lyre. Porphyryand marble, 2nd century AD. Farnese collection, Naples, Italy.

The name Apollo—unlike the related older namePaean—is generally not found in the Linear B(Mycenean Greek) texts, although there is a possible attestation in the lacunose form ]pe-rjo-[(Linear B: ]𐀟𐁊-[) on the KN E 842 tablet.^[4][5][6]

The etymology of the name is uncertain. The spelling Ἀπόλλων (pronounced [a.pól.lɔːn] in Classical Attic) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the Doric form, Apellon (Ἀπέλλων), is more archaic, as it is derived from an earlier *Ἀπέλjων. It probably is a cognate to the Doric month Apellaios (Ἀπελλαῖος),^[7] and the offerings apellaia(ἀπελλαῖα) at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai (ἀπέλλαι).^[8][9]According to some scholars, the words are derived from the Doric word apella (ἀπέλλα), which originally meant « wall, » « fence for animals » and later « assembly within the limits of the square. »^[10][11]Apella (Ἀπέλλα) is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta,^[10] corresponding to the ecclesia (ἐκκλησία). R. S. P. Beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun apellai and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *Apal^yun.^[12]

Several instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo’s name with the Greek verb ἀπόλλυμι (apollymi), « to destroy ».^[13]Plato in Cratylus connects the name with ἀπόλυσις (apolysis), « redemption », with ἀπόλουσις (apolousis), « purification », and with ἁπλοῦν ([h]aploun), « simple »,^[14] in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, Ἄπλουν, and finally with Ἀειβάλλων (aeiballon), « ever-shooting ». Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric ἀπέλλα (apella), which means « assembly », so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation σηκός (sekos), « fold », in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds.^[15] In the ancient Macedonian languageπέλλα (pella) means « stone, »^[16] and some toponyms may be derived from this word: Πέλλα (Pella,^[17] the capital of ancient Macedonia) and Πελλήνη(Pellēnē/Pallene).^[18]

A number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name,^[19] The Hittite form Apaliunas (^dx-ap-pa-li-u-na-aš) is attested in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter,^[20] perhaps related to Hurrian (and certainly the Etruscan) Aplu, a god of plague, in turn likely from AkkadianAplu Enlilmeaning simply « the son of Enlil« , a title that was given to the god Nergal, who was linked to Shamash, Babylonian god of the sun.^[21] The role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of Apollo Smintheus (« mouse Apollo ») by Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, with the purpose of sending a plague against the Greeks (the reasoning behind a god of the plague becoming a god of healing is apotropaic, meaning that the god responsible for bringing the plague must be appeased in order to remove the plague).

The Hittite testimony reflects an early form *Apeljōn, which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot Ἀπείλων with Doric Ἀπέλλων.^[22]

A Luwian etymology suggested for Apaliunasmakes Apollo « The One of Entrapment », perhaps in the sense of « Hunter ».^[23]

Greco-Roman epithets

Apollo’s chief epithet was Phoebus (/ˈfiːbəs/FEE-bəs; Φοῖβος, PhoibosGreek pronunciation: [pʰó͜i.bos]), literally « bright ».^[24] It was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans for Apollo’s role as the god of light. Like other Greek deities, he had a number of others applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in Latin literature.

Sun

• Aegletes (/əˈɡliːtiːz/ə-GLEE-teez; Αἰγλήτης, Aiglētēs), from αἴγλη, « light of the sun »^[25]
• Helius (/ˈhiːliəs/HEE-lee-əs; Ἥλιος, Helios), literally « sun »^[26]
• Lyceus (/laɪˈsiːəs/ly-SEE-əs; Λύκειος, Lykeios, from Proto-Greek *λύκη) « light ». The meaning of the epithet « Lyceus » later became associated with Apollo’s mother Leto, who was the patron goddess of Lycia (Λυκία) and who was identified with the wolf (λύκος).^[27]
• Phanaeus (/fəˈniːəs/fə-NEE-əs; Φαναῖος, Phanaios), literally « giving or bringing light »
• Phoebus (/ˈfiːbəs/FEE-bəs; Φοῖβος, Phoibos), literally « bright », his most commonly used epithet by both the Greeks and Romans
• Sol (Roman) (/sɒl/SOL), « sun » in Latin

Wolf

• Lycegenes (/laɪˈsɛdʒəniːz/ly-SEJ-ə-neez; Λυκηγενής, Lukēgenēs), literally « born of a wolf » or « born of Lycia »
• Lycoctonus (/laɪˈkɒktənəs/ly-KOK-tə-nəs; Λυκοκτόνος, Lykoktonos), from λύκος, « wolf », and κτείνειν, « to kill »

Origin and birth

Apollo’s birthplace was Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos.

• Cynthius (/ˈsɪnθiəs/SIN-thee-əs; Κύνθιος, Kunthios), literally « Cynthian »
• Cynthogenes (/sɪnˈθɒdʒɪniːz/sin-THOJ-i-neez; Κυνθογενής, Kynthogenēs), literally « born of Cynthus »
• Delius (/ˈdiːliəs/DEE-lee-əs; Δήλιος, Delios), literally « Delian »
• Didymaeus (/dɪdɪˈmiːəs/did-i-MEE-əs; Διδυμαῖος, Didymaios) from δίδυμος, « twin ») as Artemis‘ twin

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Partial view of the temple of Apollo Epikurios (healer) at Bassae in southern Greece

Place of worship

Delphi and Actium were his primary places of worship.^[28][29]

• Acraephius (/əˈkriːfiəs/ə-KREE-fee-əs; Ἀκραίφιος,^{[clarification needed]}Akraiphios, literally « Acraephian ») or Acraephiaeus(/əˌkriːfiˈiːəs/ə-KREE-fee-EE-əs; Ἀκραιφιαίος, Akraiphiaios), « Acraephian », from the Boeotiantown of Acraephia (Ἀκραιφία), reputedly founded by his son Acraepheus.^[30]
• Actiacus (/ækˈtaɪ.əkəs/ak-TY-ə-kəs; Ἄκτιακός, Aktiakos), literally « Actian », after Actium (Ἄκτιον)
• Delphinius (/dɛlˈfɪniəs/del-FIN-ee-əs; Δελφίνιος, Delphinios), literally « Delphic », after Delphi (Δελφοί). An etiology in the Homeric Hymns associated this with dolphins.
• Pythius (/ˈpɪθiəs/PITH-ee-əs; Πύθιος, Puthios, from Πυθώ, Pythō), from the region around Delphi
• Smintheus (/ˈsmɪnθjuːs/SMIN-thews; Σμινθεύς, Smintheus), « Sminthian »—that is, « of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe »^[31] near the Troad town of Hamaxitus^[32]

Temple of the Delians at Delos, dedicated to Apollo (478 BC). 19th-century pen-and-wash restoration.

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Temple of Apollo Smintheus at Çanakkale, Turkey

Healing and disease

• Acesius (/əˈsiːʒəs/ə-SEE-zhəs; Ἀκέσιος, Akesios), from ἄκεσις, « healing ». Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora.^[33]
• Acestor (/əˈsɛstər/ə-SES-tər; Ἀκέστωρ, Akestōr), literally « healer »
• Culicarius (Roman) (/ˌkjuːlɪˈkæriəs/KEW-li-KARR-ee-əs), from Latin culicārius, « of midges »
• Iatrus (/aɪˈætrəs/eye-AT-rəs; Ἰατρός, Iātros), literally « physician »^[34]
• Medicus (Roman) (/ˈmɛdɪkəs/MED-i-kəs), « physician » in Latin. A temple was dedicated to Apollo Medicus at Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona.
• Paean (/ˈpiːən/PEE-ən; Παιάν, Paiān),physician, healer ^[35]
• Parnopius (/pɑːrˈnoʊpiəs/par-NOH-pee-əs; Παρνόπιος, Parnopios), from πάρνοψ, « locust »

Founder and protector

• Agyieus (/əˈdʒaɪ.ɪjuːs/ə-JY-i-yoos; Ἀγυιεύς, Aguīeus), from ἄγυια, « street », for his role in protecting roads and homes
• Alexicacus (/əˌlɛksɪˈkeɪkəs/ə-LEK-si-KAY-kəs; Ἀλεξίκακος, Alexikakos), literally « warding off evil »
• Apotropaeus (/əˌpɒtrəˈpiːəs/ə-POT-rə-PEE-əs; Ἀποτρόπαιος, Apotropaios), from ἀποτρέπειν, « to avert »
• Archegetes (/ɑːrˈkɛdʒətiːz/ar-KEJ-ə-teez; Ἀρχηγέτης, Arkhēgetēs), literally « founder »
• Averruncus (Roman) (/ˌævəˈrʌŋkəs/AV-ə-RUNG-kəss; from Latin āverruncare), « to avert »
• Clarius (/ˈklæriəs/KLARR-ee-əs; Κλάριος, Klārios), from Doricκλάρος, « allotted lot »^[36]
• Epicurius (/ˌɛpɪˈkjʊriəs/EP-i-KEWR-ee-əs; Ἐπικούριος, Epikourios), from ἐπικουρέειν, « to aid »^[26]
• Genetor (/ˈdʒɛnɪtər/JEN-i-tər; Γενέτωρ, Genetōr), literally « ancestor »^[26]
• Nomius (/ˈnoʊmiəs/NOH-mee-əs; Νόμιος, Nomios), literally « pastoral »
• Nymphegetes (/nɪmˈfɛdʒɪtiːz/nim-FEJ-i-teez; Νυμφηγέτης, Numphēgetēs), from Νύμφη, « Nymph », and ἡγέτης, « leader », for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life

Prophecy and truth

• Coelispex (Roman) (/ˈsɛlɪspɛks/SEL-i-speks), from Latin coelum, « sky », and specere « to look at »
• Iatromantis (/aɪˌætrəˈmæntɪs/eye-AT-rə-MAN-tis; Ἰατρομάντις, Iātromantis,) from ἰατρός, « physician », and μάντις, « prophet », referring to his role as a god both of healing and of prophecy
• Leschenorius (/ˌlɛskɪˈnɔːriəs/LES-ki-NOR-ee-əs; Λεσχηνόριος, Leskhēnorios), from λεσχήνωρ, « converser »
• Loxias (/ˈlɒksiəs/LOK-see-əs; Λοξίας, Loxias), from λέγειν, « to say »,^[26] historically associated with λοξός, « ambiguous »
• Manticus (/ˈmæntɪkəs/MAN-ti-kəs; Μαντικός, Mantikos), literally « prophetic »

Music and arts

• Musagetes (/mjuːˈsædʒɪtiːz/mew-SAJ-i-teez; DoricΜουσαγέτας, Mousāgetās), from Μούσα, « Muse« , and ἡγέτης « leader »^[37]
• Musegetes (/mjuːˈsɛdʒɪtiːz/mew-SEJ-i-teez; Μουσηγέτης, Mousēgetēs), as the preceding

Archery

• Aphetor (/əˈfiːtər/ə-FEE-tər; Ἀφήτωρ, Aphētōr), from ἀφίημι, « to let loose »
• Aphetorus (/əˈfɛtərəs/ə-FET-ər-əs; Ἀφητόρος, Aphētoros), as the preceding
• Arcitenens (Roman) (/ɑːrˈtɪsɪnənz/ar-TISS-i-nənz), literally « bow-carrying »
• Argyrotoxus (/ˌɑːrdʒɪrəˈtɒksəs/AR-ji-rə-TOK-səs; Ἀργυρότοξος, Argyrotoxos), literally « with silver bow »
• Hecaërgus (/ˌhɛkiˈɜːrɡəs/HEK-ee-UR-gəs; Ἑκάεργος, Hekaergos), literally « far-shooting »
• Hecebolus (/hɪˈsɛbələs/hi-SEB-ə-ləs; Ἑκηβόλος, Hekēbolos), « far-shooting »
• Ismenius (/ɪzˈmiːniəs/iz-MEE-nee-əs; Ἰσμηνιός, Ismēnios), literally « of Ismenus », after Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, whom he struck with an arrow

Celtic epithets and cult titles

Apollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character.^[38]

• Apollo Atepomarus (« the great horseman » or « possessing a great horse »). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières (Indre). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun.^[39]
• Apollo Belenus (‘bright’ or ‘brilliant’). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, Northern Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god.^[40]
• Apollo Cunomaglus (‘hound lord’). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at Nettleton Shrub, Wiltshire. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god.^[41]
• Apollo Grannus. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo.^[42][43][44]
• Apollo Maponus. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus.
• Apollo Moritasgus (‘masses of sea water’). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians.^[45]
• Apollo Vindonnus (‘clear light’). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Châtillon-sur-Seine in present-day Burgundy. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes.^[43]
• Apollo Virotutis (‘benefactor of mankind?’). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d’Annecy (Haute-Savoie) and at Jublains (Maine-et-Loire).^[44][46]

Origins

The Omphalos in the Museum of Delphi

The cult centers of Apollo in Greece, Delphi and Delos, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to Artemis, Apollo’s twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of Pytho. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods. In archaic Greece he was the prophet, the oracular god who in older times was connected with « healing ». In classical Greece he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil.^[47]Walter Burkert^[48]discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed « a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component. »

From his eastern origin Apollo brought the art of inspection of « symbols and omina » (σημεία και τέρατα : semeia kai terata), and of the observation of the omens of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from Anatolia. The ritualism belonged to Apollo from the beginning. The Greeks created the legalism, the supervision of the orders of the gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of shining youth, the protector of music, spiritual-life, moderation and perceptible order. The improvement of the old Anatolian god, and his elevation to an intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the Greek people.^[49]

Healer and god-protector from evil

The function of Apollo as a « healer » is connected with Paean (Παιών-Παιήων), the physician of the Gods in the Iliad, who seems to come from a more primitive religion.^[50] Paeοn is probably connected with the Myceneanpa-ja-wo-ne (Linear B: 𐀞𐀊𐀍𐀚),^[51][52][53] but this is not certain. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease. Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song « paean » (παιάν). The magicians were also called « seer-doctors » (ἰατρομάντεις), and they used an ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.^[54]

In the Iliad, Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the Vedicgod of disease Rudra.^[55] He sends a plague (λοιμός) to the Achaeans. The god who sends a disease can also prevent it; therefore, when it stops, they make a purifying ceremony and offer him a hecatomb to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases, they pray and with a song they call their own god, the Paean.^[56]

Some common epithets of Apollo as a healer are « paion » (παιών, literally « healer » or « helper »)^[57]« epikourios » (ἐπικουρώ, « help »), « oulios » (οὐλή, « healed wound », also a « scar » )^[58] and « loimios » (λοιμός, « plague »). In classical times, his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and was therefore called « apotropaios » (ἀποτρέπω, « divert », « deter », « avert ») and « alexikakos » (from v.ἀλέξω + n.κακόν, « defend from evil »).^[59] In later writers, the word, usually spelled « Paean », becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing.^[60]

Homer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of apotropaic thanksgiving or triumph.^{[citation needed]} Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: to Dionysus, to Apollo Helios, to Apollo’s son Asclepius the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo’s role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won.

Dorian origin

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo Victorious over the Pythonby the Florentine Pietro Francavilla(dated 1591) depicting Apollo’s first triumph, when he slew with his bow and arrows the serpent Python, which lies dead at his feet^[61] (The Walters Art Museum).

The connection with the Dorians and their initiation festival apellai is reinforced by the month Apellaios in northwest Greek calendars.^[62] The family-festival was dedicated to Apollo (Doric: Ἀπέλλων).^[63]Apellaios is the month of these rites, and Apellon is the « megistos kouros » (the great Kouros).^[64] However it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the Ancient Macedonian word « pella » (Pella), stone. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi (Omphalos).^[65][66] The « Homeric hymn » represents Apollo as a Northern intruder. His arrival must have occurred during the « Dark Ages » that followed the destruction of the Mycenaean civilization, and his conflict with Gaia (Mother Earth) was represented by the legend of his slaying her daughter the serpent Python.^[67]

The earth deity had power over the ghostly world, and it is believed that she was the deity behind the oracle.^[68] The older tales mentioned two dragons who were perhaps intentionally conflated. A female dragon named Delphyne (δελφύς, « womb »),^[69] and a male serpent Typhon (τύφειν, « to smoke »), the adversary of Zeus in the Titanomachy, who the narrators confused with Python.^[70][71] Python was the good daemon(ἀγαθὸς δαίμων) of the temple as it appears in Minoan religion,^[72] but she was represented as a dragon, as often happens in Northern European folklore as well as in the East.^[73]

Apollo and his sister Artemis can bring death with their arrows. The conception that diseases and death come from invisible shots sent by supernatural beings, or magicians is common in Germanic and Norse mythology.^[55] In Greek mythology Artemis was the leader (ἡγεμών, « hegemon ») of the nymphs, who had similar functions with the NordicElves.^[74] The « elf-shot » originally indicated disease or death attributed to the elves, but it was later attested denoting stone arrow-heads which were used by witches to harm people, and also for healing rituals.^[75]

The Vedic Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called « The Archer », and the bow is also an attribute of Shiva.^[76]Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them, and his alternative Shiba is a healer physician god.^[77]However the Indo-European component of Apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult.

Minoan origin

Ornamented golden Minoanlabrys

It seems an oracular cult existed in Delphi from the Mycenaean age.^[78] In historical times, the priests of Delphi were called Labryaden, « the double-axe men », which indicates Minoan origin. The double-axe, labrys, was the holy symbol of the Cretanlabyrinth.^[79][80] The Homeric hymn adds that Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. Apollo Delphinios or Delphidios was a sea-god especially worshiped in Crete and in the islands.^[81] Apollo’s sister Artemis, who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with Britomartis (Diktynna), the Minoan « Mistress of the animals ». In her earliest depictions she is accompanied by the « Mister of the animals », a male god of hunting who had the bow as his attribute. His original name is unknown, but it seems that he was absorbed by the more popular Apollo, who stood by the virgin « Mistress of the Animals », becoming her brother.^[74]

The old oracles in Delphi seem to be connected with a local tradition of the priesthood, and there is not clear evidence that a kind of inspiration-prophecy existed in the temple. This led some scholars to the conclusion that Pythia carried on the rituals in a consistent procedure through many centuries, according to the local tradition. In that regard, the mythical seeress Sibyl of Anatolianorigin, with her ecstatic art, looks unrelated to the oracle itself.^[82] However, the Greek tradition is referring to the existence of vapours and chewing of laurel-leaves, which seem to be confirmed by recent studies.^[83]

Plato describes the priestesses of Delphi and Dodona as frenzied women, obsessed by « mania » (μανία, « frenzy »), a Greek word he connected with mantis (μάντις, « prophet »).^[84] Frenzied women like Sibyls from whose lips the god speaks are recorded in the Near East as Mari in the second millennium BC.^[85] Although Crete had contacts with Mari from 2000 BC,^[86] there is no evidence that the ecstatic prophetic art existed during the Minoan and Mycenean ages. It is more probable that this art was introduced later from Anatolia and regenerated an existing oracular cult that was local to Delphi and dormant in several areas of Greece.^[87]

Anatolian origin

Illustration of a coin of Apollo Agyieus from Ambracia

A non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship.^[7] The name of Apollo’s mother Letohas Lydian origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of Asia Minor. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from Anatolia, which is the origin of Sibyl, and where existed some of the oldest oracular shrines. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old Assyro–Babylonian texts, and these rituals were spread into the empire of the Hittites. In a Hittite text is mentioned that the king invited a Babylonian priestess for a certain « purification ».^[49]

A similar story is mentioned by Plutarch. He writes that the CretanseerEpimenides purified Athensafter the pollution brought by the Alcmeonidae, and that the seer’s expertise in sacrifices and reform of funeral practices were of great help to Solon in his reform of the Athenian state.^[88] The story indicates that Epimenides was probably heir to the shamanic religions of Asia, and proves, together with the Homeric hymn, that Crete had a resisting religion up to historical times. It seems that these rituals were dormant in Greece, and they were reinforced when the Greeks migrated to Anatolia.

Homer pictures Apollo on the side of the Trojans, fighting against the Achaeans, during the Trojan War. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to Appaliunas, a tutelary god of Wilusa(Troy) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete.^[89] The stones found in front of the gates of Homeric Troy were the symbols of Apollo. The Greeks gave to him the name ἀγυιεύςagyieus as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil, and his symbol was a tapered stone or column.^[90] However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the full moon, all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (sibutu) indicates a Babylonianorigin.^[91]

The Late Bronze Age (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) Hittite and HurrianAplu was a god of plague, invoked during plague years. Here we have an apotropaic situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu, meaning the son of, was a title given to the god Nergal, who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun Shamash.^[21] Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god (δεινὸς θεός) who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods.^[92] In Iliad, his priest prays to Apollo Smintheus,^[93] the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats.^[31][94][95] All these functions, including the function of the healer-god Paean, who seems to have Mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of Apollo.

Oracular cult

Columns of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Greece

Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: Delos and Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apolloand Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality.^[96] Apollo’s cult was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period, and the frequency of theophoric names such as Apollodorus or Apollonios and cities named Apollonia testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at Didyma and Claruspronounced the so-called « theological oracles », in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an all-encompassing, highest deity. « In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. Julian the Apostate (359–361) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed. »^[7]

Oracular shrines

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Delos lions

Apollo had a famous oracle in Delphi, and other notable ones in Clarus and Branchidae. His oracular shrine in Abae in Phocis, where he bore the toponymic epithet Abaeus (Ἀπόλλων Ἀβαῖος, Apollon Abaios), was important enough to be consulted by Croesus.^[97] His oracular shrines include:

• Abae in Phocis.
• Bassae in the Peloponnese.
• At Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a pneuma, from which the priests drank.
• In Corinth, the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of Tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War.
• At Khyrse, in Troad, the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus.
• In Delos, there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born.
• In Delphi, the Pythia became filled with the pneuma of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton.
• In Didyma, an oracle on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian (Luwian) Sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by Branchus, son or lover of Apollo.
• In Hierapolis Bambyce, Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise De Dea Syria, the sanctuary of the Syrian Goddess contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image.^[98]
• At Patara, in Lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman.
• In Segesta in Sicily.

Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo.

• In Oropus, north of Athens, the oracle Amphiaraus, was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring.
• in Labadea, 20 miles (32 km) east of Delphi, Trophonius, another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle.

Temples of Apollo

Main articles: Ancient Greek temple and Roman temple

Many temples were dedicated to Apollo in Greece and the Greek colonies. They show the spread of the cult of Apollo and the evolution of the Greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples, especially in Crete, do not belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectanglular wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered divine, and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of Doric order. The Greeks used standard types because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be canonic, and the architects were trying to achieve this esthetic perfection.^[99]From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were built narrowly in order to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed some mathematical relations became necessary in order to keep the original forms. This probably influenced the theory of numbers of Pythagoras, who believed that behind the appearance of things there was the permanent principle of mathematics.^[100]

The Doric order dominated during the 6th and the 5th century BC but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which couldn’t be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the Ionic order, but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the Corinthian order gradually during the Hellenistic age and under Rome.

The most important temples are:

Greek temples

• Thebes, Greece: The oldest temple probably dedicated to Apollo Ismenius was built in the 9th century B.C. It seems that it was a curvilinear building. The Doric temple was built in the early 7th century B.C., but only some small parts have been found ^[101] A festival called Daphnephoria was celebrated every ninth year in honour of Apollo Ismenius (or Galaxius). The people held laurel branches (daphnai), and at the head of the procession walked a youth (chosen priest of Apollo), who was called « daphnephoros ».^[102]
• Eretria: According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, the god arrived to the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. The first temple of Apollo Daphnephoros, « Apollo, laurel-bearer », or « carrying off Daphne », is dated to 800 B.C. The temple was curvilinear hecatombedon (a hundred feet). In a smaller building were kept the bases of the laurel branches which were used for the first building. Another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century B.C., with an inner row of wooden columns over its Geometric predecessor. It was rebuilt peripteral around 510 B.C., with the stylobate measuring 21,00 x 43,00 m. The number of pteron column was 6 x 14.^[103][104]
• Dreros (Crete). The temple of Apollo Delphinios dates from the 7th century B.C., or probably from the middle of the 8th century B.C. According to the legend, Apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried Cretan priests to the port of Delphi.^[105] The dimensions of the plan are 10,70 x 24,00 m and the building was not peripteral. It contains column-bases of the Minoan type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the Doric columns.^[106]
• Gortyn (Crete). A temple of Pythian Apollo, was built in the 7th century B.C. The plan measured 19,00 x 16,70 m and it was not peripteral. The walls were solid, made from limestone, and there was single door on the east side.
• Thermon (West Greece): The Doric temple of Apollo Thermios, was built in the middle of the 7th century B.C. It was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century B.C., on which a peristyle was added. The temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 x 15. There was a single row of inner columns. It measures 12.13 x 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones.^[107]

Floor plan of the temple of Apollo, Corinth

• Corinth: A Doric temple was built in the 6th century B.C. The temple’s stylobatemeasures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. There was a double row of inner columns. The style is similar with the Temple of Alcmeonidae at Delphi.^[108] The Corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the Doric order.^[107]
• Napes (Lesbos): An Aeolic temple probably of Apollo Napaios was built in the 7th century B.C. Some special capitals with floral ornament have been found, which are called Aeolic, and it seems that they were borrowed from the East.^[109]
• Cyrene, Libya: The oldest Doric temple of Apollo was built in c. 600 B.C. The number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 x 30.05 m at the stylobate. There was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. The capitals were made from stone.^[109]
• Naukratis: An Ionic temple was built in the early 6th century B.C. Only some fragments have been found and the earlier, made from limestone, are identified among the oldest of the Ionic order.^[110]

Floor plan of the temple of Apollo, Syracuse

• Syracuse, Sicily: A Doric temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century B.C. The temple’s stylobate measures 21.47 x 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. It was the first temple in Greek west built completely out of stone. A second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch.^[111]
• Selinus (Sicily):The DoricTemple C dates from 550 B.C., and it was probably dedicated to Apollo. The temple’s stylobate measures 10.48 x 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. There was portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at Syracuse.^[112]
• Delphi: The first temple dedicated to Apollo, was built in the 7th century B.C. According to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. The « Temple of Alcmeonidae » was built in c. 513 B.C. and it is the oldest Doric temple with significant marble elements. The temple’s stylobate measures 21.65 x 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15.^[113] A fest similar with Apollo’s fest at Thebes, Greece was celebrated every nine years. A boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (dopnephoros). The maidens participated with joyful songs.^[102]
• Chios: An Ionic temple of Apollo Phanaios was built at the end of the 6th century B.C. Only some small parts have been found and the capitals had floral ornament.^[109]
• Abae (Phocis). The temple was destroyed by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in 480 B.C., and later by the Boeotians. It was rebuilt by Hadrian.^[114] The oracle was in use from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period, and shows the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion.^[115]

Floor plan of the Temple of Apollo at Bassae

• Bassae(Peloponnesus):A temple dedicated to Apollo Epikourios (« Apollo the helper »), was built in 430 B.C. and it was designed by Iktinos.It combined Doric and Ionic elements, and the earliest use of column with a Corinthian capital in the middle.^[116] The temple is of a relatively modest size, with the stylobate measuring 14.5 x 38.3 metres^[117] containing a Doricperistyle of 6 x 15 columns. The roof left a central space open to admit light and air.*Delos: A temple probably dedicated to Apollo and not peripteral, was built in the late 7th century B.C., with a plan measuring 10,00 x 15,60 m. The Doric Great temple of Apollo, was built in c. 475 B.C. The temple’s stylobate measures 13.72 x 29.78 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 13. Marble was extensively used.^[109]
• Ambracia: A Doric peripteral temple dedicated to Apollo Pythios Sotir was built in 500 B.C., and It is lying at the centre of the Greek city Arta. Only some parts have been found, and it seems that the temple was built on earlier sanctuaries dedicated to Apollo. The temple measures 20,75 x 44,00 m at the stylobate. The foundation which supported the statue of the god, still exists.^[118]

Temple of Apollo, Didyma

• Didyma(near Miletus): The gigantic Ionic temple of Apollo Didymaiosstarted around 540 B.C. The construction ceased and then it was restarted in 330 B.C. The temple is dipteral, with an outer row of 10 x 21 columns, and it measures 28.90 x 80.75 m at the stylobate.^[119]
• Clarus (near ancient Colophon): According to the legend, the famous seer Calchas, on his return from Troy, came to Clarus. He challenged the seer Mopsus, and died when he lost.^[120] The Doric temple of Apollo Clariuswas probably built in the 3rd century B.C., and it was peripteral with 6 x 11 columns. It was reconstructed at the end of the Hellenistic period, and later from the emperor Hadrian but Pausanias claims that it was still incomplete in the 2nd century B.C.^[121]
• Hamaxitus (Troad): In Iliad, Chryses the priest of Apollo, addresses the god with the epithet Smintheus (Lord of Mice), related with the god’s ancient role as bringer of the disease (plague). Recent excavations indicate that the Hellenistic temple of Apollo Smintheus was constructed at 150–125 B.C., but the symbol of the mouse god was used on coinage probably from the 4th century B.C.^[122] The temple measures 40,00 x 23,00 m at the stylobate, and the number of pteron columns was 8 x 14.^[123]

Etruscan and Roman temples

• Veii (Etruria): The temple of Apollo was built in the late 6th century B.C. and it indicates the spread of Apollo’s culture (Aplu) in Etruria. There was a prostyle porch, which is called Tuscan, and a triple cella 18,50 m wide.^[124]
• Falerii Veteres (Etruria): A temple of Apollo was built probably in the 4th-3rd century B.C. Parts of a teraccotta capital, and a teraccotta base have been found. It seems that the Etruscan columns were derived from the archaic Doric.^[124] A cult of Apollo Soranus is attested by one inscription found near Falerii.^[125]

Plan of the Temple of Apollo (Pompeii)

• Pompeii (Italy): The cult of Apollo was widespread in the region of Campania since the 6th century B.C. The temple was built in 120 B.V, but its beginnings lie in the 6th century B.C. It was reconstructed after an earthquake in A.D. 63. It demonstrates a mixing of styles which formed the basis of Roman architecture. The columns in front of the cella formed a Tuscan prostyle porch, and the cella is situated unusually far back. The peripteral colonnade of 48 Ionic columns was placed in such a way that the emphasis was given to the front side.^[126]
• Rome: The temple of Apollo Sosianus and the temple of Apollo Medicus. The first temple building dates to 431 B.C., and was dedicated to Apollo Medicus (the doctor), after a plague of 433 B.C.^[127] It was rebuilt by Gaius Sosius, probably in 34 B.C. Only three columns with Corinthian capitals exist today. It seems that the cult of Apollo had existed in this area since at least to the mid-5th century B.C.^[128]
• Rome:The temple of Apollo Palatinus was located on the Palatine hill within the sacred boundary of the city. It was dedicated by Augustus on 28 B.C. The façade of the original temple was Ionic and it was constructed from solid blocks of marble. Many famous statues by Greek masters were on display in and around the temple, including a marble statue of the god at the entrance and a statue of Apollo in the cella.^[129]
• Melite (modern Mdina, Malta): A Temple of Apollo was built in the city in the 2nd century A.D. Its remains were discovered in the 18th century, and many of its architectural fragments were dispersed among private collections or reworked into new sculptures. Parts of the temple’s podium were rediscovered in 2002.^[130]

Mythology

Main article: Greek mythology

Birth

Apollo (left) and Artemis. Brygos (potter signed), tondo of an Attic red-figure cup c. 470 BC, Musée du Louvre.

When Zeus’ wife Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on terra firma. In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island. She gave birth there and was accepted by the people, offering them her promise that her son would be always favourable toward the city. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean.^[15] This island later became sacred to Apollo.

It is also stated that Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace of amber nine yards (8.2 m) long. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and subsequently assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day (ἑβδομαγενής, hebdomagenes)^[131] of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition—or of the month Bysios—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.^[15]

Youth

Four days after his birth, Apollo killed the chthonicdragon Python, which lived in Delphi beside the Castalian Spring. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophecies. Hera sent the serpent to hunt Leto to her death across the world. To protect his mother, Apollo begged Hephaestus for a bow and arrows. After receiving them, Apollo cornered Python in the sacred cave at Delphi.^[132] Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of Gaia.

Hera then sent the giant Tityos to rape Leto. This time Apollo was aided by his sister Artemis in protecting their mother. During the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to Tartarus. There, he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of 9 acres (36,000 m²), where a pair of vultures feasted daily on his liver.

Trojan War

Marble Bust of Apollo after the Apollo Belvedere. Circa 1675

Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the Trojan War in retribution for Agamemnon‘s insult to Chryses, a priest of Apollo whose daughter Chryseis had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the Iliad.

In the Iliad, when Diomedes injured Aeneas, Apollo rescued him. First, Aphrodite tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in Troy.

Apollo aided Paris in the killing of Achilles by guiding the arrow of his bow into Achilles‘ heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles’ sacrilege in murdering Troilus, the god’s own son by Hecuba, on the very altar of the god’s own temple.

Admetus

When Zeus struck down Apollo’s son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting Hippolytusfrom the dead (transgressing Themis by stealing Hades‘s subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the Cyclopes, who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus.^[133] Apollo would have been banished to Tartarus forever for this, but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labor, due to the intercession of his mother, Leto. During this time he served as shepherd for King Admetus of Pherae in Thessaly. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus.

Apollo helped Admetus win Alcestis, the daughter of King Pelias and later convinced the Fates to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but Heracles managed to « persuade » Thanatos, the god of death, to return her to the world of the living.

Artemis and Apollo Piercing Niobe’s Children with their Arrows by Jacques-Louis David, Dallas Museum of Art

Niobe

Niobe, the queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared (Chloris, usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge.

A devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylos in Asia Minor and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.

Consorts and children

Love affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology.^[134] Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination.

Female lovers

: Apollo and Daphne

Apollo and Daphne by Bernini in the Galleria Borghese

Daphne was a nymph, daughter of the river godPeneus, who had scorned Apollo. The myth explains the connection of Apollo with δάφνη (daphnē), the laurel whose leaves his priestess employed at Delphi.^[135] In Ovid‘s Metamorphoses, Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a weapon more suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Cupid shoots a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prays to her father Peneus for help and he changes her into the laurel tree, sacred to Apollo.

Artemis Daphnaia, who had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi^[136] in Antiquity, on the slopes of Mount Cnacadion near the Spartan frontier,^[137] had her own sacred laurel trees.^[138] At Eretria the identity of an excavated 7th- and 6th-century temple to Apollo Daphnephoros, « Apollo, laurel-bearer », or « carrying off Daphne », a « place where the citizens are to take the oath », is identified in inscriptions.^[139]

Leucothea was daughter of Orchamus and sister of Clytia. She fell in love with Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea’s mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister’s trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.

Marpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. Zeus made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.

Castalia was a nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the spring at Delphi, at the base of Mt. Parnassos, which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses. In the last oracle is mentioned that the « water which could speak », has been lost for ever.

By Cyrene, Apollo had a son named Aristaeus, who became the patron god of cattle, fruit trees, hunting, husbandry and bee-keeping. He was also a culture-hero and taught humanity dairy skills, the use of nets and traps in hunting, and how to cultivate olives.

Hecuba was the wife of King Priam of Troy, and Apollo had a son with her named Troilus. An oracle prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by Achilleus.

Cassandra, was daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus’ half-sister. Apollo fell in love with Cassandra and promised her the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gave her the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her.

Coronis, was daughter of Phlegyas, King of the Lapiths. Pregnant with Asclepius, Coronis fell in love with Ischys, son of Elatus. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in other stories, Apollo himself had killed Coronis). As a result, he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the centaurChiron to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did.

In Euripides‘ play Ion, Apollo fathered Ion by Creusa, wife of Xuthus. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked Hermes to save the child and bring him to the oracle at Delphi, where he was raised by a priestess.

Acantha, was the spirit of the acanthus tree, and Apollo had one of his other liaisons with her. Upon her death, Apollo transformed her into a sun-loving herb.

According to the Biblioteca, the « library » of mythology mis-attributed to Apollodorus, he fathered the Corybantes on the Muse Thalia.^[140]

Consorts and children: extended list

1. Acacallis
   1. Amphithemis (Garamas)^[141]
   2. Naxos, eponym of the island Naxos^[142]
   3. Phylacides
   4. Phylander^[143]
2. Acantha
3. Aethusa
   1. Eleuther
4. Aganippe
   1. Chios^[144]
5. Alciope^[145]
   1. Linus (possibly)
6. Amphissa / Isse, daughter of Macareus
7. Anchiale / Acacallis
   1. Oaxes^[146]
8. Areia, daughter of Cleochus / Acacallis / Deione
   1. Miletus
9. Astycome, nymph
   1. Eumolpus (possibly)^[147]
10. Arsinoe, daughter of Leucippus
    1. Asclepius (possibly)
    2. Eriopis
11. Babylo
    1. Arabus^[148]
12. Bolina
13. Calliope, Muse
    1. Orpheus (possibly)
    2. Linus (possibly)
    3. Ialemus
14. Cassandra
15. Castalia
16. Celaeno, daughter of Hyamus / Melaina / Thyia
    1. Delphus
17. Chione / Philonis / Leuconoe
    1. Philammon
18. Chrysorthe
    1. Coronus
19. Chrysothemis
    1. Parthenos
20. Coronis
    1. Asclepius
21. Coryceia
    1. Lycorus (Lycoreus)
22. Creusa
    1. Ion
23. Cyrene
    1. Aristaeus
    2. Idmon (possibly)
    3. Autuchus^[149]
24. Danais, Cretan nymph
    1. The Curetes^[150]
25. Daphne
26. Dia, daughter of Lycaon
    1. Dryops
27. Dryope
    1. Amphissus
28. Euboea (daughter of Macareus of Locris)
    1. Agreus
29. Evadne, daughter of Poseidon
    1. Iamus
30. Gryne
31. Hecate
    1. Scylla (possibly)^[151]
32. Hecuba
    1. Troilus
    2. Hector (possibly)^[152]
33. Hestia (wooed her unsuccessfully)
34. Hypermnestra, wife of Oicles
    1. Amphiaraus (possibly)
35. Hypsipyle^[153]
36. Hyria (Thyria)
    1. Cycnus
37. Lycia, nymph or daughter of Xanthus
    1. Eicadius^[154]
    2. Patarus^[155]
38. Manto
    1. Mopsus
39. Marpessa
40. Melia
    1. Ismenus^[156]
    2. Tenerus^[157]
41. Ocyrhoe
42. Othreis
    1. Phager
43. Parnethia, nymph
    1. Cynnes^[158]
44. Parthenope
    1. Lycomedes
45. Phthia
    1. Dorus
    2. Laodocus
    3. Polypoetes
46. Prothoe^[159]
47. Procleia
    1. Tenes (possibly)
48. Psamathe
    1. Linus
49. Rhoeo
    1. Anius
50. Rhodoessa, nymph
    1. Ceos, eponym of the island Ceos^[160]
51. Rhodope
    1. Cicon, eponym of the tribe Cicones^[161]
52. Sinope
    1. Syrus
53. Stilbe
    1. Centaurus
    2. Lapithes
    3. Aineus
54. Syllis / Hyllis
    1. Zeuxippus
55. Thaleia, Muse / Rhetia, nymph
    1. The Corybantes
56. Themisto, daughter of Zabius of Hyperborea^[162]
    1. Galeotes
    2. Telmessus (?)
57. Thero
    1. Chaeron
58. Urania, Muse
    1. Linus (possibly)
59. Urea, daughter of Poseidon
    1. Ileus (Oileus?)
60. Wife of Erginus
    1. Trophonius (possibly)
61. Unknown consorts
    1. Acraepheus, eponym of the city Acraephia^[163]
    2. Chariclo (possibly)^[164]
    3. Erymanthus
    4. Marathus, eponym of Marathon^[165]
    5. Megarus^[166]
    6. Melaneus
    7. Oncius^[167][168]
    8. Phemonoe
    9. Pisus, founder of Pisa in Etruria^[169]
    10. Younger Muses
        1. Cephisso
        2. Apollonis
        3. Borysthenis

Male lovers

Apollo and Hyacinthus, 16th-century Italian engraving by Jacopo Caraglio

Hyacinth or Hyacinthus was one of Apollo’s male lovers. He was a Spartanprince, beautiful and athletic. The pair was practicing throwing the discus when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous Zephyrus and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief: out of Hyacinthus’ blood, Apollo created a flower named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection αἰαῖ, meaning alas.^[170] The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta.

Another male lover was Cyparissus, a descendant of Heracles. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the Cypress named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.

Other male lovers of Apollo include:

• Admetus^[171][172]
• Atymnius,^[173] otherwise known as a beloved of Sarpedon
• Branchus (alternately, a son of Apollo)
• Carnus
• Clarus^[174]
• Hippolytus of Sicyon (not the same as Hippolytus, the son of Theseus)^[172]
• Hymenaios^[175]
• Iapis
• Leucates, who threw himself off a rock when Apollo attempted to carry him off^[176]
• Phorbas (probably the son of Triopas)^[177]
• Potnieus^[178]

Apollo’s lyre

Apollo with his lyre. Statue from Pergamon Museum, Berlin.

Hermes was born on Mount Cyllenein Arcadia. The story is told in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes.^[179] His mother, Maia, had been secretly impregnated by Zeus. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep.

Hermes ran to Thessaly, where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near Pylos, covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a tortoise and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow’s intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first lyre.

Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo’s claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo then became a master of the lyre.

Apollo in the Oresteia

In Aeschylus‘ Oresteia trilogy, Clytemnestra kills her husband, King Agamemnon because he had sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia to proceed forward with the Trojan war, and Cassandra, a prophetess of Apollo. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon’s son, Orestes, is to kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the Erinyes or Furies (female personifications of vengeance).

Apollo and the Furies argue about whether the matricide was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo’s supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo.

Other stories

Apollo killed the Aloadae when they attempted to storm Mt. Olympus.

Callimachus sang^[180] that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the Hyperboreansduring the winter months.

Apollo turned Cephissus into a sea monster.

Another contender for the birthplace of Apollo is the Cretan islands of Paximadia.

Musical contests

Pan

Once Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo and to challenge Apollo, the god of the kithara, the mountain-god Tmolus was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a donkey.

Marsyas

Marsyas under Apollo’s punishment, İstanbul Archaeology Museum

Apollo has ominous aspects aside from his plague-bringing, death-dealing arrows: Marsyaswas a satyr who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an aulos on the ground, tossed away after being invented by Athena because it made her cheeks puffy. The contest was judged by the Muses.

After they each performed, both were deemed equal until Apollo decreed they play and sing at the same time. As Apollo played the lyre, this was easy to do. Marsyas could not do this, as he only knew how to use the flute and could not sing at the same time. Apollo was declared the winner because of this. Apollo flayed Marsyas alive in a cave near Celaenae in Phrygia for his hubris to challenge a god. He then nailed Marsyas’ shaggy skin to a nearby pine-tree. Marsyas’ blood turned into the river Marsyas.

Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the flute), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive.^[181]

Cinyras

Apollo also had a lyre-playing contest with Cinyras, his son, who committed suicide when he lost.

Head of Apollo, marble, Roman copy of a Greek original of the 4th century BCE, from the collection of Cardinal Albani

Roman Apollo

The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks.^[182]As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as Phoebus.^[183]There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings of Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus.^[184]

On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo’s first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the « Apollinare ».^[185] During the Second Punic War in 212 BCE, the Ludi Apollinares (« Apollonian Games ») were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius.^[186] In the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.^[187][182]

After the battle of Actium, which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo’s temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour.^[188] He also erected a new temple to the god on the Palatine hill.^[189] Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and Dianaformed the culmination of the Secular Games, held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.^[190]

Festivals

The chief Apollonian festivals were the Boedromia, Carneia, Carpiae, Daphnephoria, Delia, Hyacinthia, Metageitnia, Pyanepsia, Pythiaand Thargelia.

Attributes and symbols

Apollo’s most common attributes were the bow and arrow. Other attributes of his included the kithara (an advanced version of the common lyre), the plectrum and the sword. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The Pythian Games were held in Apollo’s honor every four years at Delphi. The bay laurel plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games.^[182]

Gold stater of the Seleucid king Antiochus I Soter (reigned 281–261 BCE) showing on the reverse a nude Apollo holding his key attributes: two arrows and a bow

The palm treewas also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in Delos. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, cicadas(symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows, snakes (referencing Apollo’s function as the god of prophecy), mice and griffins, mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin.^[182]

Apollo Citharoedus (« Apollo with a kithara »), Musei Capitolini, Rome

As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE.

According to Greek tradition, he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: Hittitecuneiform texts mention a Minor Asian god called Appaliunas or Apalunas in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo’s title of Lykegenes can simply be read as « born in Lycia », which effectively severs the god’s supposed link with wolves (possibly a folk etymology).

In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the Borghese Vase.

Apollo is often associated with the Golden Mean. This is the Greek ideal of moderation and a virtuethat opposes gluttony.

Apollo in the arts

The Louvre Apollo Sauroctonos, Roman copy after Praxiteles (360 BC)

Apollo is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the Renaissance. The earliest Greek word for a statue is « delight » (ἄγαλμα, agalma), and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art puts into Apollo the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought.

The naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty, balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world.

The evolution of the Greek sculpture can be observed in his depictions from the almost static formal Kouros type in early archaic period, to the representation of motion in a relative harmonious whole in late archaic period. In classical Greecethe emphasis is not given to the illusive imaginative reality represented by the ideal forms, but to the analogies and the interaction of the members in the whole, a method created by Polykleitos. Finally Praxiteles seems to be released from any art and religious conformities, and his masterpieces are a mixture of naturalismwith stylization.

Art and Greek philosophy

The evolution of the Greek art seems to go parallel with the Greek philosophical conceptions, which changed from the natural-philosophy of Thales to the metaphysical theory of Pythagoras. Thales searched for a simple material-form directly perceptible by the senses, behind the appearances of things, and his theory is also related to the older animism. This was paralleled in sculpture by the absolute representation of vigorous life, through unnaturally simplified forms.^[191]

Pythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation.^[100] The forms on earth, are imperfect imitations (εἰκόνες, eikones, « images ») of the celestial world of numbers. His ideas had a great influence on post-Archaic art. The Greek architects and sculptors were always trying to find the mathematical relation, that would lead to the esthetic perfection.^[192] (canon).

In classical Greece, Anaxagoras asserted that a divine reason (mind) gave order to the seeds of the universe, and Plato extended the Greek belief of ideal forms to his metaphysical theory of forms(ideai, « ideas »). The forms on earth are imperfect duplicates of the intellectual celestial ideas. The Greek words oida (οἶδα, « (I) know ») and eidos(εἶδος, « species »), a thing seen, have the same root as the word idea (ἰδέα), a thing ἰδείν to see.^[193][194] indicating how the Greek mind moved from the gift of the senses, to the principles beyond the senses. The artists in Plato’s time moved away from his theories and art tends to be a mixture of naturalism with stylization. The Greek sculptors considered the senses more important, and the proportions were used to unite the sensible with the intellectual.

Archaic sculpture

Sacred Gate Kouros, marble (610–600 BC), Kerameikos Archaeological Museum in Athens

Kouros (male youth) is the modern term given to those representations of standing male youths which first appear in the archaic period in Greece. This type served certain religious needs and was first proposed for what was previously thought to be depictions of Apollo.^[195][196] The first statues are certainly still and formal. The formality of their stance seems to be related with the Egyptian precedent, but it was accepted for a good reason. The sculptors had a clear idea of what a young man is, and embodied the archaic smile of good manners, the firm and springy step, the balance of the body, dignity, and youthful happiness. When they tried to depict the most abiding qualities of men, it was because men had common roots with the unchanging gods.^[197] The adoption of a standard recognizable type for a long time, is probably because nature gives preference in survival of a type which has long be adopted by the climatic conditions, and also due to the general Greek belief that nature expresses itself in ideal formsthat can be imagined and represented.^[192] These forms expressed immortality. Apollo was the immortal god of ideal balance and order. His shrine in Delphi, that he shared in winter with Dionysius had the inscriptions: γνῶθι σεαυτόν(gnōthi seautón= »know thyself ») and μηδὲν ἄγαν(mēdén ágan, « nothing in excess »), and ἐγγύα πάρα δ’ἄτη (eggýa pára d’atē, « make a pledge and mischief is nigh »).^[198]

New York Kouros, Met. Mus. 32.11.1, marble (620–610 BC), Metropolitan Museum of Art

In the first large-scale depictions during the early archaic period (640–580 BC), the artists tried to draw one’s attention to look into the interior of the face and the body which were not represented as lifeless masses, but as being full of life. The Greeks maintained, until late in their civilization, an almost animistic idea that the statues are in some sense alive. This embodies the belief that the image was somehow the god or man himself.^[199] A fine example is the statue of the Sacred Gate Kouroswhich was found at the cemetery of Dipylon in Athens (Dipylon Kouros). The statue is the « thing in itself », and his slender face with the deep eyes express an intellectual eternity. According to the Greek tradition the Dipylon master was named Daedalus, and in his statues the limbs were freed from the body, giving the impression that the statues could move. It is considered that he created also the New York kouros, which is the oldest fully preserved statue of Kouros type, and seems to be the incarnation of the god himself.^[191]

Piraeus Apollo, archaic-style bronze, Archaeological Museum of Piraeus

The animistic idea as the representation of the imaginative reality, is sanctified in the Homeric poems and in Greek myths, in stories of the god Hephaestus(Phaistos) and the mythic Daedalus (the builder of the labyrinth) that made images which moved of their own accord. This kind of art goes back to the Minoan period, when its main theme was the representation of motion in a specific moment.^[200] These free-standing statues were usually marble, but also the form rendered in limestone, bronze, ivory and terracotta.

The earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo, may be two figures from the Ionicsanctuary on the island of Delos. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of Apollo Ptoios, Boeotiaalone.^[201] The last stage in the development of the Kouros type is the late archaic period (520–485 BC), in which the Greek sculpture attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used to create a relative harmonious whole. Ranking from the very few bronzes survived to us is the masterpiece bronze Piraeus Apollo. It was found in Piraeus, the harbour of Athens. The statue originally held the bow in its left hand, and a cup of pouring libation in its right hand. It probably comes from north-eastern Peloponnesus. The emphasis is given in anatomy, and it is one of the first attempts to represent a kind of motion, and beauty relative to proportions, which appear mostly in post-Archaic art. The statue throws some light on an artistic centre which, with an independently developed harder, simpler and heavier style, restricts Ionian influence in Athens. Finally, this is the germ from which the art of Polykleitos was to grow two or three generations later.^[202]

Classical sculpture

Apollo of the « Mantoua type », marble Roman copy after a 5th-century BCE Greek original attributed to Polykleitos, Musée du Louvre

At the beginning of the Classical period, it was considered that beauty in visible things as in everything else, consisted of symmetry and proportions. The artists tried also to represent motion in a specific moment (Myron), which may be considered as the reappearance of the dormant Minoanelement.^[200] Anatomy and geometry are fused in one, and each does something to the other. The Greek sculptors tried to clarify it by looking for mathematical proportions, just as they sought some reality behind appearances. Polykleitos in his Canon wrote that beauty consists in the proportion not of the elements (materials), but of the parts, that is the interrelation of parts with one another and with the whole. It seems that he was influenced by the theories of Pythagoras.^[203] The famous Apollo of Mantua and its variants are early forms of the Apollo Citharoedus statue type, in which the god holds the cithara in his left arm. The type is represented by neo-Attic Imperial Roman copies of the late 1st or early 2nd century, modelled upon a supposed Greek bronze original made in the second quarter of the 5th century BCE, in a style similar to works of Polykleitos but more archaic. The Apollo held the cythara against his extended left arm, of which in the Louvre example, a fragment of one twisting scrolling horn upright remains against his biceps.

Though the proportions were always important in Greek art, the appeal of the Greek sculptures eludes any explanation by proportion alone. The statues of Apollo were thought to incarnate his living presence, and these representations of illusive imaginative reality had deep roots in the Minoan period, and in the beliefs of the first Greekspeaking people who entered the region during the bronze-age. Just as the Greeks saw the mountains, forests, sea and rivers as inhabited by concrete beings, so nature in all of its manifestations possesses clear form, and the form of a work of art. Spiritual life is incorporated in matter, when it is given artistic form. Just as in the arts the Greeks sought some reality behind appearances, so in mathematics they sought permanent principles which could be applied wherever the conditions were the same. Artists and sculptors tried to find this ideal order in relation with mathematics, but they believed that this ideal order revealed itself not so much to the dispassionate intellect, as to the whole sentient self.^[191] Things as we see them, and as they really are, are one, that each stresses the nature of the other in a single unity.

Pediments and friezes

Apollo, West Pediment Olympia. Munich, copy from original, 460 BCE at the Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Greece.

In the archaic pediments and friezes of the temples, the artists had a problem to fit a group of figures into an isosceles triangle with acute angles at the base.

The Siphnian Treasury in Delphi was one of the first Greek buildings utilizing the solution to put the dominating form in the middle, and to complete the descending scale of height with other figures sitting or kneeling. The pediment shows the story of Heracles stealing Apollo’s tripod that was strongly associated with his oracular inspiration. Their two figures hold the centre. In the pediment of the temple of Zeus in Olympia, the single figure of Apollo is dominating the scene.^[197]

Head of the Apollo Belvedere

These representations rely on presenting scenes directly to the eye for their own visible sake. They care for the schematic arrangements of bodies in space, but only as parts in a larger whole. While each scene has its own character and completeness it must fit into the general sequence to which it belongs. In these archaic pediments the sculptors use empty intervals, to suggest a passage to and from a busy battlefield. The artists seem to have been dominated by geometrical pattern and order, and this was improved when classical art brought a greater freedom and economy.^[197]

Hellenistic Greece-Rome

Apollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a kithara (as Apollo Citharoedus) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the Apollo Lykeios and Apollo Sauroctonostypes). The Apollo Belvedere is a marblesculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of Classical Antiquity for Europeans, from the Renaissance through the 19th century. The marble is a Hellenistic or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor Leochares, made between 350 and 325 BCE.

The life-size so-called « Adonis » found in 1780 on the site of a villa suburbana near the Via Labicanain the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from El Djem, Roman Thysdrus, he is identifiable as Apollo Helios by his effulgent halo, though now even a god’s divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire.

Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse.^[204]The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict Alexander the Great.^[205] Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed.

Modern reception

Apollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a « Hymn of Apollo » (1820), and the god’s instruction of the Muses formed the subject of Igor Stravinsky‘s Apollon musagète (1927–1928). In 1978, the Canadian band Rush released an album with songs « Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom »/ »Dionysus: Bringer of Love ».

In discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the Apollonian and Dionysian impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. Friedrich Nietzscheargued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. Carl Jung‘s Apollo archetyperepresents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance.

Charles Handy, in Gods of Management (1978) uses Greek gods as a metaphor to portray various types of organisational culture. Apollo represents a ‘role’ culture where order, reason and bureaucracy prevail.^[206]

In spaceflight, the NASA program for landing astronauts on the Moon was named Apollo.

Genealogy

Left: Surya on a quadriga, Bodh Gaya relief, India. Right: Classical example of Phoebus Apollo on quadriga.

The Overthrow of Apollo and the Pagan Gods, watercolour from William Blake’s illustrations of On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity (1809)

[hide]Apollo’s family tree [207]
Uranus Gaia Uranus’ genitals Coeus Phoebe Cronus Rhea Leto Zeus Hera Poseidon Hades Demeter Hestia APOLLO Artemis     a [208]      b [209] Ares Hephaestus Metis Athena[210] Maia Hermes Semele Dionysus Dione     a [211]      b [212] Aphrodite

• Greek mythology portal
• Hellenismos portal

• Dryad
• Epirus
• Pasiphaë
• Phoebus (disambiguation)
• Sibylline oracles
• Tegyra
• Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)

Notes

1. Jump up^ Krauskopf, I. 2006. « The Grave and Beyond. » The Religion of the Etruscans. edited by N. de Grummond and E. Simon. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. vii, p. 73-75.
2. Jump up^ For the iconography of the Alexander–Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, 1963. « Helios », in Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 2, pp. 117–23; cf. Yalouris 1980, no. 42.
3. Jump up^ Joseph Fontenrose, « Apollo and Sol in the Latin poets of the first century BC », Transactions of the American Philological Association 30(1939), pp 439–55; « Apollo and the Sun-God in Ovid », American Journal of Philology 61 (1940) pp 429–44; and « Apollo and Sol in the Oaths of Aeneas and Latinus » Classical Philology 38.2 (April 1943), pp. 137–138.
4. Jump up^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 118.
5. Jump up^ Herda, Alexander (2008). « Apollon Delphinios – Apollon Didymeus: Zwei Gesichter eines milesischen Gottes und ihr Bezug zur Kolonisation Milets in archaischer Zeit ». Internationale Archäologie (in German). Arbeitsgemeinschaft, Symposium, Tagung, Kongress. Band 11: Kult(ur)kontakte. Apollon in Milet/Didyma, Histria, Myus, Naukratis und auf Zypern. Akten des Table Ronde in Mainz vom 11.–12. März 2004: 16. ISBN 978-3-89646-441-5.
6. Jump up^ « KN 842 E », DĀMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo, University of Oslo. Department of Philosophy, Classics, History of Art and Ideas.
7. ^ Jump up to:^a b c van der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; van der Horst, Pieter Willem (1999). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Brill. p. 73. ISBN 978-90-04-11119-6.
8. Jump up^ « The young men became grown-up kouroi, and Apollon was the « megistos kouros » (The Great Kouros) : Jane Ellen Harrison (2010): Themis: A study to the Social origins of Greek Religion Cambridge University Press. pp. 439–441, ISBN 1108009492
9. Jump up^ Visible Religion. Volume IV–V. Approaches to Iconology. Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1985 p. 143 [1]
10. ^ Jump up to:^a b The word usually appears in plural: Hesychius: ἀπέλλαι (apellai), σηκοί (« folds »), ἐκκλησίαι (« assemblies »), ἀρχαιρεσίαι(« elections »): Nilsson, Vol. I, p. 556
11. Jump up^ Doric Greek verb: ἀπέλλάζειν (« to assemble »), and the festival ἀπέλλαι (apellai), which surely belonged to Apollo. Nilsson, Vol I, p. 556.
12. Jump up^ Beekes, 2009, pp. 115 and 118–119.
13. Jump up^ Mike Campbell. « Meaning, Origin and History of the Name Apollo ». Behind the Name. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
14. Jump up^ The ἁπλοῦν suggestion is repeated by Plutarch in Moralia in the sense of « unity« .
15. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Freese 1911, p. 184.
16. Jump up^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 1168.
17. Jump up^ Πέλλα / Pella, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon
18. Jump up^ Nilsson Vol I, p.558
19. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson, Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion, vol. I (C. H. Beck), 1955:555–564.
20. Jump up^ The reading of Apaliunas and the possible identification with Apollo is due to Emil Forrer(1931). It was doubted by Kretschmer, GlottaXXIV, p. 250. Martin Nilsson (1967), Vol I, p. 559
21. ^ Jump up to:^a b de Grummond, Nancy Thomson (2006) Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend. (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology); Mackenzie, Donald A. (2005) Myths of Babylonia and Assyria (Gutenberg)
22. Jump up^ Angel, John L.; Mellink, Machteld Johanna (1986). Troy and the Trojan War: A Symposium Held at Bryn Mawr College, October 1984. Bryn Mawr Commentaries. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-929524-59-7.
23. Jump up^ Immerwahr, Sara Anderson; Chapin, Anne Proctor (2004). Charis: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr. Amer School of Classical. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-87661-533-1.
24. Jump up^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 1582.
25. Jump up^ Apollonius of Rhodes, iv. 1730; Pseudo-Apollodorus, Biblioteca, i. 9. § 26
26. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Álvaro Jr., Santos, Allan. Simbolismo divino. Allan Álvaro, Jr., Santos.
27. Jump up^ Aelian, On the Nature of Animals 4. 4 (A.F. Scholfield, tr.)
28. Jump up^ Ovid, Metamorphoses xiii. 715
29. Jump up^ Strabo, x. p. 451
30. Jump up^ Wiliam Smith. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Acraepheus
31. ^ Jump up to:^a b Σμινθεύς in Liddell and Scott
32. Jump up^ The epithet « Smintheus » has historically been confused with σμίνθος, « mouse », in association with Apollo’s role as a god of disease
33. Jump up^ Smith, William (1873). « Acesius ». Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. London. At the Perseus Project.
34. Jump up^ Euripides, Andromache 901
35. Jump up^ παιών
36. Jump up^ κλάρος
37. Jump up^ Μουσαγέτας in Liddell and Scott.
38. Jump up^ Miranda J. Green, Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend, Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997
39. Jump up^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII, 1863–1986; A. Ross, Pagan Celtic Britain, 1967; M.J. Green, The Gods of the Celts, 1986, London
40. Jump up^ J. Zwicker, Fontes Historiae Religionis Celticae, 1934–36, Berlin; Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum V, XI, XII, XIII; J. Gourcest, « Le culte de Belenos en Provence occidentale et en Gaule », Ogam 6.6 (1954:257–262); E. Thevonot, « Le cheval sacre dans la Gaule de l’Est », Revue archeologique de l’Est et du Centre-Est (vol 2), 1951; [], « Temoignages du culte de l’Apollon gaulois dans l’Helvetie romaine », Revue celtique(vol 51), 1934.
41. Jump up^ W.J. Wedlake, The Excavation of the Shrine of Apollo at Nettleton, Wiltshire, 1956–1971, Society of Antiquaries of London, 1982.
42. Jump up^ M. Szabo, The Celtic Heritage in Hungary(Budapest 1971)
43. ^ Jump up to:^a b Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule, E. Thevonat, 1968, Paris
44. ^ Jump up to:^a b La religion des Celtes, J. de Vries, 1963, Paris
45. Jump up^ J. Le Gall, Alesia, archeologie et histoire(Paris 1963).
46. Jump up^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII
47. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967) ».Die Geschicte der Giechischen Religion.Vol I ».C.F.Beck Verlag.Munchen. p 529
48. Jump up^ Burkert, Walter. Greek Religion, 1985:144.
49. ^ Jump up to:^a b Martin Nilsson. Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion Vol I, pp. 563–564
50. Jump up^ Paieon (Παιήων) puts pain-relieving medicines on the wounds of Pluton and Ares ( Ilias E401). This art is related with Egypt: (Odyssey D232): M. Nilsson Vol I, p. 543
51. Jump up^ Schofield, Louise (2007). The Mycenaeans. The British Museum Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-89236-867-9.
52. Jump up^ « KN V 52+ ». Deaditerranean: Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B.
53. Jump up^ Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 89. ISBN 0-521-29037-6. At Google Books.
54. Jump up^ Ἐπὶ καταπαύσει λοιμῶν καὶ νόσων ᾄδόμενος. Which is sung to stop the plagues and the diseases. Proklos: Chrestom from Photios Bibl. code. 239, p. 321: Martin Nilsson. Die Geschicthe der Griechischen religion. Vol I, p. 543
55. ^ Jump up to:^a b « The conception that the diseases come from invisible shots sent by magicians or supernatural beings is common in primitive people and also in European folklore. In North-Europe they speak of the « Elf-shots« . In Sweden where the Lapps were called magicians, they speak of the « Lappen-shots ». Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 541
56. Jump up^ Ilias A 314. Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 543
57. Jump up^ [2]: Harper’s Dictionary of classical antiquity
58. Jump up^ Perseus.tufts.edu
59. Jump up^ Pausanias VIII 41, 8-IV 34, 7-Sittig. Nom P. 48. f-Aristoph. Vesp. V. 61-Paus. I 3, 4. Martin Nilsson (1967) Vol I, p. 540, 544
60. Jump up^ Graf, Fritz (2008). Apollo. Taylor & Francis. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-203-58171-1.
61. Jump up^ « Apollo Victorious over the Python ». The Walters Art Museum. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
62. Jump up^ Graf, Apollo, pp. 104–113; Burkert also notes in this context Archilochus Fr. 94.
63. Jump up^ Walter Burkert (1985) Greek Religion. Harvard University Press. p. 255
64. Jump up^ Jane Ellen Harrison (2010): Themis: A study to the Social origins of Greek Religion. Cambridge University Press. p. 441. ISBN 1108009492
65. Jump up^ Compare: Baetylus. In Semitic: sacred stone
66. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I. p. 556
67. Jump up^ Herbert W. Park (1956). The delphic oracle. Vol.I, p. 3
68. Jump up^ Lewis Farnel(1909)The cult of the city states. Clarendon Press. VIII. pp. 8–10
69. Jump up^ δελφύς
70. Jump up^ « Many pictures show the serpent Python living in amity with Apollo and guarding the Omphalos. Karl Kerenyi (1951). ed. 1980: The gods of the Greeks, pp. 36–37
71. Jump up^ « In a Pompeian fresco Python is lying peacefully on the ground and the priests with the sacred double axe in their hand bring the bull (bouphronion). Jane. H. Harisson (1912): Themis. A study of the social origins of the Greek religion. Cambridge University Press. pp. 423–424
72. Jump up^ In Minoan religion the serpent is the protector of the household (underground stored corn). Also in Greek religion, « snake of the house » (οἰκουρὸς ὄφις) in the temple of Athena at Acropolis, etc., and in Greek folklore. Martin Nilsson, Vol.I, pp. 213–214
73. Jump up^ Nordig sagas. Hittite myth of Illuyankas. Also in the Bible: Leviathan. W. Porzig (1930). Illuyankas and Typhon. Kleinasiatische Forschung, pp. 379–386
74. ^ Jump up to:^a b . Martin Nilsson (1967), Vol I, pp. 499–500
75. Jump up^ Hall, Alaric. 2005. ‘Getting Shot of Elves: Healing, Witchcraft and Fairies in the Scottish Witchcraft Trials’, [3], 116 (2005), pp. 19–36.
76. Jump up^ For Śarva as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910.
77. Jump up^ For association between Rudra and disease, with Rigvedic references, see: Bhandarkar, p. 146.
78. Jump up^ Odyssey 8.80
79. Jump up^ Huxley (1975). Cretan Paewones. Roman and Byzantine studies, pp. 129–134
80. Jump up^ H.G.Wunderlich. The secret of Creta Souvenir Press Ltd. London p. 319
81. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 554 A4
82. Jump up^ Hugh Bowden (2005). Classical Athens and the Delphic oracle, pp. 17–18
83. Jump up^ William J. Broad (2006). The oracle: the lost secrets and hidden message of ancient Delphi. Penguin Group USA. p. 32. ISBN 1-59420-081-5.
84. Jump up^ μάντις in Liddell and Scott.
85. Jump up^ Walter Burkert (1985).The Greek religion. p. 116
86. Jump up^ F.Schachermeyer (1964). p. 128
87. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, pp. 543–545
88. Jump up^ Plutarch, Life of Solon, 12; Aristotle, Ath. Pol. 1.
89. Jump up^ Paul Kretschmer (1936). Glotta XXIV p. 250. Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 559.
90. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson, Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion. vol. I (C. H. Beck), 1955:563f.
91. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 561.
92. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I. pp. 559–560.
93. Jump up^ « You Apollo Smintheus, let my tears become your arrows against the Danaans, for revenge ». Iliad 1.33 (A 33).
94. Jump up^ An ancient aetiological myth connects sminthos with mouse and suggests Cretan origin. Apollo is the mouse-god (Strabo 13.1.48).
95. Jump up^ « Sminthia » in several areas of Greece. In Rhodes (Lindos) they belong to Apollo and Dionysos who have destroyed the rats that were swallowing the grapes ». Martin Nilsson (1967). pp. 534–535.
96. Jump up^ Burkert 1985:143.
97. Jump up^ Herodotus, 1.46.
98. Jump up^ Lucian (attrib.), De Dea Syria 35–37.
99. Jump up^ To know what a thing is, we must know the look of it »: Rhys Carpenter: The esthetic basis of Greek art. Indiana University Press. p. 108
100. ^ Jump up to:^a b C. M. Bowra (1957). The Greek experience, p. 166.
101. Jump up^ William Dinsmoor (1950),The architecture of Ancient Greece, p. 218, ISBN 0-8196-0283-3
102. ^ Jump up to:^a b William Smith. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875. p. 384
103. Jump up^ Hellenic Ministry of culture, Temple of Apollo Daphnephoros Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
104. Jump up^ Rufus B. Richardson, « A Temple in Eretria » The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts, 10.3 (July – September 1895:326–337)
105. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 529
106. Jump up^ Robertson pp. 56 and 323
107. ^ Jump up to:^a b Spivey, p. 112
108. Jump up^ Robertson p. 87
109. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d D.S Robertson(1945):A handbook of Greek and Roman architecture, Cambridge University Press pp. 324-329
110. Jump up^ Robertson, p. 98
111. Jump up^ Mertens 2006, pp. 104–109.
112. Jump up^ IG XIV 269
113. Jump up^ Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Ancient-Greece.org
114. Jump up^ Smith, William (1850). New classical dictionary of biography, mythology, and geography. p. 1. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
115. Jump up^ See reports of the German Archaeological Institute in Archaeological Reports for 2008/9 43-45
116. Jump up^ Hellenic Ministry of Culture: The Temple of Epicurean Apollo.
117. Jump up^ Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae, World Heritage Site.
118. Jump up^ Ministry of culture. Temple of Apollo Pythios Sotir Archived 2 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
119. Jump up^ Peter Schneider: Neue Funde vom archaischen Apollontempel in Didyma. In: Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner (ed.): Säule und Gebälk. Zu Struktur und Wandlungsprozeß griechisch-römischer Architektur. Bauforschungskolloquium in Berlin vom 16.-18. Juni 1994. Diskussionen zur Archäologischen Bauforschung
120. Jump up^ perseus tufts Clarus
121. Jump up^ Prophecy centre of Apollo Clarius
122. Jump up^ Bresson (2007) 154-5, citing the excavations reports of Özgünel (2001).
123. Jump up^ Robertson p.333
124. ^ Jump up to:^a b Robertson pp. 200-201
125. Jump up^ Perseus tufts: Falerii Veteres
126. Jump up^ Davidson CSA :Temple of Apollo, PompeiiArchived 6 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
127. Jump up^ Livy 4.25
128. Jump up^ Livy 34.43
129. Jump up^ A topographical dictionary of Ancient Rome
130. Jump up^ Testa, Michael (19 March 2002). « New find at Mdina most important so far in old capital ». Times of Malta. Archived from the original on 13 April 2016.
131. Jump up^ ἑβδομαγενής in Liddell and Scott.
132. Jump up^ Children of the Gods by Kenneth McLeish, page 32.
133. Jump up^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliothke iii. 10.4.
134. Jump up^ « The love-stories themselves were not told until later. » Karl Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks 1951:140.
135. Jump up^ The ancient Daphne episode is noted in late narratives, notably in Ovid, Metamorphoses, in Hyginus, Fabulae, 203 and by the fourth-century-CE teacher of rhetoric and Christian convert, Libanius, in Narrationes.
136. Jump up^ G. Shipley, « The Extent of Spartan Territory in the Late Classical and Hellenistic Periods », The Annual of the British School at Athens, 2000.
137. Jump up^ Pausanias, 3.24.8 (on-line text); Lilius Gregorius Gyraldus, Historiae Deorum Gentilium, Basel, 1548, Syntagma 10, is noted in this connection in Benjamin Hederich,Gründliches mythologisches Lexikon, 1770
138. Jump up^ Karl Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks, 1951:141
139. Jump up^ Rufus B. Richardson, « A Temple in Eretria » The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts, 10.3 (July – September 1895:326–337); Paul Auberson, Eretria. Fouilles et Recherches I, Temple d’Apollon Daphnéphoros, Architecture (Bern, 1968). See also Plutarch, Pythian Oracle, 16.
140. Jump up^ Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, 1.3.4. Other ancient sources, however, gave the Corybantes different parents; see Sir James Frazer‘s noteon the passage in the Bibliotheca.
141. Jump up^ Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 1491 ff
142. Jump up^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 1491 ff
143. Jump up^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 10. 16. 5
144. Jump up^ Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers, 7. 1
145. Jump up^ Photius, Lexicon s. v. Linos
146. Jump up^ Servius on Virgil‘s Eclogue 1, 65
147. Jump up^ Photius, Lexicon, s. v. Eumolpidai
148. Jump up^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, 7. 56 – 57 p. 196
149. Jump up^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 2. 498
150. Jump up^ Tzetzes on Lycophron, 77
151. Jump up^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica4.828, referring to « Hesiod« , Megalai Ehoiai fr.
152. Jump up^ Tzetzes on Lycophron, 266
153. Jump up^ Arnobius, Adversus Nationes, 4. 26; not the same as Hypsipyle of Lemnos
154. Jump up^ Servius on Aeneid, 3. 332
155. Jump up^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Patara
156. Jump up^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 9.10.6.
157. Jump up^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 9.10.6, 26.1.
158. Jump up^ Photius, Lexicon, s. v. Kynneios
159. Jump up^ Arnobius, Adversus Nationes, 4. 26
160. Jump up^ Etymologicum Magnum 507, 54, under Keios
161. Jump up^ Etymologicum Magnum 513, 37, under Kikones
162. Jump up^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. Galeōtai
163. Jump up^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. Akraiphia
164. Jump up^ Scholia on Pindar, Pythian Ode 4. 181
165. Jump up^ Suda s. v. Marathōn
166. Jump up^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v Megara
167. Jump up^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 8. 25. 4
168. Jump up^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Ogkeion
169. Jump up^ Servius on Aeneid, 10. 179
170. Jump up^ αἰαῖ, αἴ in Liddell and Scott.
171. Jump up^ Callimachus, Hymn to Apollo, 49.
172. ^ Jump up to:^a b Plutarch, Life of Numa, 4. 5.
173. Jump up^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca, 11. 258; 19. 181.
174. Jump up^ Philostratus, Letters, 5. 3.
175. Jump up^ Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses, 23.
176. Jump up^ Servius on Aeneid, 3. 279.
177. Jump up^ Plutarch, Life of Numa, 4. 5, cf. also Hyginus, Poetical Astronomy, 2. 14.
178. Jump up^ Clement of Rome, Homilia, 5. 15.
179. Jump up^ « English translation of the Homeric Hymn to Hermes ». Perseus. Retrieved 28 January2015.
180. Jump up^ Callimachus, Hymn to Apollo2.5
181. Jump up^ Man Myth and Magic by Richard Cavendish
182. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Freese 1911, p. 185.
183. Jump up^ « Koronis ». Theoi. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
184. Jump up^ Livy 1.56.
185. Jump up^ Livy 3.63.7, 4.25.3.
186. Jump up^ Livy 25.12.
187. Jump up^ J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz (1979). Continuity and Change in Roman Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 82–85. ISBN 0-19-814822-4.
188. Jump up^ Suetonius, Augustus 18.2; Cassius Dio51.1.1–3.
189. Jump up^ Cassius Dio 53.1.3.
190. Jump up^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 5050, translated by Beard, Mary; North, John; Price, Simon (1998). Religions of Rome: Volume 2: A Sourcebook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 5.7b. ISBN 0-521-45015-2.
191. ^ Jump up to:^a b c E. Homann-Wedeking. Transl. J.R. Foster (1968). Art of the world. Archaic Greece, Methuen & Co Ltd. London, pp. 63–65, 193.
192. ^ Jump up to:^a b R. Carpenter (1975). The esthetic basis of Greek art. Indiana University Press. pp. 55–58.
193. Jump up^ ”The same root of looking or seeing” . R. Carpenter (1975). The esthetic basis of Greek art. Indiana University Press. p.107.
194. Jump up^ idea
195. Jump up^ V.I. Leonardos(1895). Archaelogiki Ephimeris, Col 75, n 1.
196. Jump up^ Lechat (1904). La sculpture Attic avant Phidias, p. 23.
197. ^ Jump up to:^a b c C. M. Bowra (1957). The Greek experience, pp. 144–152.
198. Jump up^ See ἄτη in Liddell and Scott.
199. Jump up^ C.M. Bowra. The Greek experience, p. 159.
200. ^ Jump up to:^a b F. Schachermeyer (1964). Die Minoische Kultur des alten Creta, Kohlhammer Stuttgart, pp. 242–244.
201. Jump up^ J. Ducat (1971). Les Kouroi des Ptoion.
202. Jump up^ Homann-Wedeking (1966). Art of the World. Archaic Greece, pp. 144–150.
203. Jump up^ « Each part (finger, palm, arm, etc.) transmitted its individual existence to the next, and then to the whole » : Canon of Polykleitos, also Plotinus, Ennead I vi. i: Nigel Spivey (1997). Greek art, Phaidon Press Ltd. London. pp. 290–294.
204. Jump up^ « Mosaics in Tunisia: Apollo and the Muses ». Web.archive.org. 8 July 2008. Archived from the original on 8 July 2008. Retrieved 30 July2013.
205. Jump up^ Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980.
206. Jump up^ British Library: Management and Business Studies Portal, Charles Handy Archived 12 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine., accessed 12 November 2016
207. Jump up^ This chart is based upon Hesiod‘s Theogony, unless otherwise noted.
208. Jump up^ According to Homer, Iliad 1.570–579, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312, Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74.
209. Jump up^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 927–929, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.
210. Jump up^ According to Hesiod‘s Theogony 886–890, of Zeus’ children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena « from his head », see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84.
211. Jump up^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 183–200, Aphrodite was born from Uranus’ severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100.
212. Jump up^ According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad 3.374, 20.105; Odyssey 8.308, 320) and Dione (Iliad5.370–71), see Gantz, pp. 99–100.

References

Primary sources

• Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
• Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
• Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
• Sophocles, Oedipus Rex
• Palaephatus, On Unbelievable Tales 46. Hyacinthus (330 BCE)
• Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes.Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
• Ovid, Metamorphoses 10. 162–219 (1–8 CE)
• Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
• Philostratus the Elder, Images i.24 Hyacinthus (170–245 CE)
• Philostratus the Younger, Images 14. Hyacinthus (170–245 CE)
• Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 14 (170 CE)
• First Vatican Mythographer, 197. Thamyris et Musae

Secondary sources

• M. Bieber, 1964. Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art. Chicago.
• Hugh Bowden, 2005. Classical Athens and the Delphic Oracle: Divination and Democracy. Cambridge University Press.
• Walter Burkert, 1985. Greek Religion (Harvard University Press) III.2.5 passim
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Freese, John Henry (1911). « Apollo« . In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 184–186.
• Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2).
• Fritz Graf (2009). Apollo. Taylor & Francis US. ISBN 978-0-415-31711-5.
• Robert Graves, 1960. The Greek Myths, revised edition. Penguin.
• Miranda J. Green, 1997. Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend, Thames and Hudson.
• Karl Kerenyi, 1953. Apollon: Studien über Antiken Religion und Humanität revised edition.
• Karl Kerenyi, 1951. The Gods of the Greeks
• Mertens, Dieter; Schutzenberger, Margareta. Città e monumenti dei Greci d’Occidente: dalla colonizzazione alla crisi di fine V secolo a.C.. Roma L’Erma di Bretschneider, 2006. ISBN88-8265-367-6.
• Martin Nilsson, 1955. Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion, vol. I. C.H. Beck.
• Pauly–Wissowa, Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft: II, « Apollon ». The best repertory of cult sites (Burkert).
• Pfeiff, K.A., 1943. Apollon: Wandlung seines Bildes in der griechischen Kunst. Traces the changing iconography of Apollo.
• D.S.Robertson (1945) A handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture Cambridge University Press
• Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). « Apollo »
• Spivey Nigel (1997) Greek art Phaedon Press Ltd.

Apollo.

• Apollo at the Greek Mythology Link, by Carlos Parada

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Resurrection of Christ

by Hendrick van den Broeck

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

A reconstruction of the way the Sistine Chapel may have appeared from the exterior at the time of Michelangelo

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Trials of Moses by Botticelli

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Perugino: Wanderung Moses nach Ägypten

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Signorelli: Testament und Tod Mose

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

The Delivery of the Keys by Perugino

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Rosselli: Das letzte Abendmahl

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Michelangelo, volta della Cappella Sistina

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Michelangelo, lunetta, Jacob – Joseph

Lunetta di Giacobbe e Giuseppe (dettaglio)

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Michel-Ange — File:Lastjudgement.jpg

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Das Jüngste Gericht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle nach der Restaurierung

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Michel-Ange — File:Lastjudgement.jpg

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Michel-Ange — File:Lastjudgement.jpg

Le Jugement dernier (détail).
Le Christ et la Vierge.

Giacobbe Giusti, Sixtinische Kapelle

Ansicht der Sixtinischen Kapelle von der Kuppel des Petersdoms aus
Daten
Ort	Vatikanstadt
Baujahr	1475–1483
Höhe	21 m
Grundfläche	550 m²

Die Sixtinische Kapelle (italienischCappella Sistina) ist eine der Kapellen des Apostolischen Palastes. Sie ist der Ort, an dem das Konklaveabgehalten wird, und beherbergt einige der berühmtesten Gemäldeder Welt. Ihr Name bezieht sich auf Papst Sixtus IV., unter dem sie zwischen 1475 und 1483 erbaut wurde. Am 15. August 1483 wurde die Kapelle geweiht. Sie steht unter dem Patrozinium der Aufnahme Mariens in den Himmel.

Sie liegt unmittelbar nördlich des Petersdoms und ist mit diesem über die Scala Regia und Sala Regiaverbunden. Für Touristen ist allerdings nur der Eintritt über die Vatikanischen Museenmöglich.

Architektur

Die Pläne für die Sixtinische Kapelle stammen von Baccio Pontelli. Der Grundriss ist rechteckig. Der Bau ist 40,9 Meter lang, 13,4 Meter breit und 20,7 Meter hoch. Die Kapelle ist in der Proportion des Salomonischen Tempels errichtet, ihre Länge entspricht in etwa der doppelten Höhe und der dreifachen Breite. Die Decke ist ein flaches Stichkappengewölbe.

Fresken

Blick in den Kapellenraum

Wandgemälde

Die Wandgemälde zeigen jeweils nach Osten Szenen aus dem Leben Jesu und Mose und wurden von verschiedenen Malern der Renaissance geschaffen: Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Cosimo Rosselli, Biagio d’Antonio und Luca Signorelli.

Nordwand: Geschichten aus dem Leben Jesu

Ursprünglich wurden Episoden aus dem Leben Jesu Christi in acht Bildern dargestellt. Der Zyklus begann mit der Geburt Christi, einem Werk von Perugino, das zugunsten des Jüngsten Gerichts von Michelangelo wieder entfernt werden musste. Die Motive aus dem Leben Jesu:

1. Taufe Christi (Perugino)
2. Versuchung Christi (Botticelli)
3. Berufung der ersten Apostel (Ghirlandaio)
4. Bergpredigt (Rosselli)
5. Schlüsselübergabe (Perugino)
6. Das Letzte Abendmahl (Rosselli)
7. Auferstehung Christi (ursprünglich von Ghirlandaio, 1522 zerstört, 60 Jahre später von Hendrick van den Broeckerneuert)

• 

  Perugino: Taufe Christi

• 

  Botticelli: Die Versuchung Christi

• 

  Ghirlandaio: Berufung der ersten Apostel

• 

  Perugino: Christus übergibt Petrus den Schlüssel zum Himmelreich

• 

  Rosselli: Die Bergpredigt

• 

  Rosselli: Das letzte Abendmahl

• 

  van den Broeck: Auferstehung Christi

Südwand: Leben des Mose

Auch die Geschichten aus dem Leben Mose füllten acht Bildfelder. Das Fresko mit der Auffindung des Mose von Perugino musste ebenfalls dem Jüngsten Gericht Michelangelos weichen. Die Motive aus dem Leben Mose (mit Parallelen zum Leben Jesu):

1. Wanderung des Mose nach Ägypten (Perugino)
2. Begebenheiten aus dem Leben des Mose (Botticelli)
3. Durchzug durch das Rote Meer (d’Antonio)
4. Übergabe der Gesetzestafeln (Rosselli)
5. Bestrafung von Korach, Datan und Abiram (Botticelli)
6. Testament und Tod des Mose (Signorelli)
7. Streit um den Leichnam von Mose (ursprünglich von Signorelli, 1522 zerstört, 60 Jahre später von Matteo Perez d’Aleccio erneuert)

• 

  Perugino: Wanderung Moses nach Ägypten

• 

  Botticelli: Begebenheiten aus dem Leben des Mose

• 

  Botticelli: Die Bestrafung von Korach, Datan und Abiram

• 

  Signorelli: Testament und Tod Mose

Deckengemälde

Besondere Berühmtheit erlangte die Kapelle durch ihre Ausschmückung mit Fresken. Die Deckenmalereien malte Michelangelo Buonarroti zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Papst Julius II. Sie wurden am 1. November 1512 enthüllt und zeigen Szenen aus der Genesis auf insgesamt 520 m² mit 115 überlebensgroßen Charakteren. Besonders der Ausschnitt Die Erschaffung Adams ist ein weltbekanntes und oft reproduziertes Werk. Es zeigt, wie Gottvater mit ausgestrecktem Finger Adam zum Leben erweckt.

vergrößern und Informationen zum Bild anzeigen

„Ohne die Sixtinische Kapelle gesehen zu haben, kann man sich keinen anschauenden Begriff machen, was ein Mensch vermag.“

– Johann Wolfgang Goethe^[1]

Zentrale Bildfelder

Deckenfresken, Übersicht

Der zentrale Grat besteht aus neun waagerechten Bildfeldern unterschiedlicher Größe, die die Szenen aus dem Alten Testamentdarstellen, wobei immer drei Felder zusammengehören: Schöpfung, Adam und Eva sowie Noah. Michelangelo malte diese Fresken in umgekehrter zeitlicher Reihenfolge, indem er mit der Trunkenheit Noahs begann. Ab der Erschaffung Evas wird die Darstellung monumentaler, auch die begleitenden Propheten und Sibyllen werden expressiver. Diese narrativen Felder sind umgeben von Motiven aus der Bibel und der antikenMythologie.

1. Die Scheidung von Licht und Finsternis: „Und Gott sprach, es werde Licht!“ (Genesis 1, 3–5)
2. Die Erschaffung der Sonne, des Mondes und der Pflanzen: „Und Gott machte zwei große Lichter: ein großes Licht, das den Tag regiere, und ein kleines Licht, das die Nacht regiere …“ (Genesis 1, 16–17)
3. Die Scheidung von Land und Wasser: „Und Gott sprach: Es werde eine Feste zwischen den Wassern, die da scheide zwischen den Wassern.“ (Genesis 1, 6–7)
   

   Die Erschaffung Adams

4. Die Erschaffung Adams: „Und Gott sprach: Lasset uns den Menschen machen …“ (Genesis 1, 26)
5. Die Erschaffung Evas: „Da ließ Gott der Herr einen tiefen Schlaf fallen auf den Menschen, und er schlief ein. Und er nahm eine seiner Rippen und schloss die Stelle mit Fleisch. Und Gott der Herr baute ein Weib aus der Rippe, die er von dem Menschen nahm.“ (Genesis 2, 21–23)
6. Der Sündenfall und die Vertreibung aus dem Paradies: „Da sprach die Schlange zum Weibe: … und ihr werdet sein wie Gott und wissen, was gut und böse ist.“ (Genesis 3, 4–7)
7. Das Opfer Noahs: „Noah aber baute dem Herrn einen Altar und nahm von allem reinen Vieh und von allen reinen Vögeln und opferte Brandopfer auf dem Altar.“ (Genesis 8, 20)
8. Die Sintflut: „Da sprach Gott zu Noah: Das Ende allen Fleisches ist bei mir beschlossen, denn die Erde ist voller Frevel …“ (Genesis 6, 13 und 7, 6)
9. Die Trunkenheit Noahs: „Und da er von dem Wein trank, ward er trunken und lag im Zelt aufgedeckt.“ (Genesis 9, 20–22)

Benachbarte Darstellungen

Medaillon mit dem Tod des Urija

1. Medaillons: vergoldete Kreisscheiben mit Darstellung der Kämpfe aus dem Buch der Könige. Sie wurden von Michelangelos Helfern angefertigt, wobei auffällt, dass die vor dem Jahr 1511 gemalten Medaillons sorgfältiger ausgeführt wurden als die späteren.
2. Ignudi: Darstellung 20 nackter, muskulöser junger Männer, die mit Bändern und Eichenblättern geschmückt sind (Traubeneiche heißt übrigens auf italienisch „rovere“ und ist eine Anspielung auf den Familiennamen des Papstes Julius II.: „della Rovere“).

Propheten und Sibyllen

Cumäische Sibylle

Das Jüngste Gericht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle nach der Restaurierung

Detail aus dem Jüngsten Gericht

Selbstporträt Michelangelos auf der Haut des Bartholomäus

Neben den Propheten des Alten Testaments stellte Michelangelo auch Sibyllendar, Figuren aus der antiken Mythologie, die ebenfalls die Gabe der Weissagung besessen haben sollen. Die bekannteste dieser Sybillen ist die Cumäische, die die Geburt eines Erlösers vorhergesagt haben soll:

Das letzte Zeitalter, das von der Cumäischen Sibylle besungen wurde, wird kommen: „[…] seid freundlich gegenüber dem Knaben, der geboren werden wird […].“ (Vergil, IV. Ekloge)

Begleitet werden diese Darstellungen von Genien, die vermutlich deren Gedanken verkörpern und einen Kontrast zu deren Monumentalität bieten. Auffällig ist, dass die Propheten und Sybillen von einem Ende der Kapelle zum anderen größer werden. Es ist möglich, dass Michelangelo dadurch die perspektivische Verkürzung korrigieren wollte.

1. Prophet Sacharja
2. Delphische Sibylle
3. Prophet Jesaja
4. Sibylle von Cumae
5. Prophet Daniel
6. Libysche Sibylle
7. Prophet Jona
8. Prophet Jeremia
9. Persische Sibylle
10. Prophet Ezechiel
11. Sibylle von Erythrai
12. Prophet Joel

Vier Eckzwickel

Diese Gewölbezwickelbestehen aus vier großen Dreiecksfeldern an den Ecken des Gewölbes, die heroische Ereignisse aus dem Alten Testament schildern. Michelangelo nutzte bei diesen Feldern den Kunstgriff der Verkürzung, sodass diese Felder von unten richtig erfasst werden können.

1. David und Goliath
2. Judith und Holofernes
3. Die Bestrafung des Haman
4. Die eherne Schlange

Vorfahren Jesu

In den vierzehn halbkreisförmigen Lünetten über den Fenstern sind die Vorfahren Jesu dargestellt, wie sie bei Matthäus aufgezählt werden (Mt 1,1-16). Ihre Namen sind auf Schrifttafeln vermerkt. Die Abbildungen in den acht Stichkappen dienen vermutlich als Ergänzung, eine einwandfreie Identifizierung dieser Personen ist aber – ebenso wie bei den Lünetten – nicht möglich. Michelangelo stellte die Vorfahrenreihe vollständig dar, entfernte aber Jahre später eigenhändig die Bilder von Abraham bis Aram, um Platz für sein Jüngstes Gericht zu schaffen. So sind heute nur noch die Vorfahren Jesu ab Amminadab erhalten. Die Reihe beginnt vorn rechts an der Südwand und wird dann abwechselnd an Nordwand und Südwand fortgesetzt. Allerdings gibt es eine Ausnahme: Die Gruppe Joschijah, Jojachin und Schealtiël ist nach der Gruppe Hiskija, Manasse und Amon ebenfalls an der Nordwand platziert.

1. Amminadab
2. Nachschon
3. Salmon, Boas und Obed
4. Isai, David und Salomo
5. Rehabeam und Abija
6. Asa, Joschafat und Joram
7. Usija, Jotam und Ahas
8. Hiskija, Manasse und Amon
9. Joschija, Jojachin und Schealtiël
10. Serubbabel, Abihud und Eljakim
11. Azor und Zadok
12. Achim und Eliud
13. Eleasar und Mattan
14. Jakob und Josef

Bildprogramm

Das Bildprogramm des Deckengemäldes wird seit Erwin Panofskyneuplatonisch gedeutet. Michelangelo habe unter dem Einfluss Marsilio Ficinos (1433–1499) gestanden, eines einflussreichen Florentiner Philosophen, der die Lehren des Christentums mit denen Platons und Plotins in Einklang zu bringen versuchte. Ihn hatte Michelangelo in seiner Jugend wohl noch persönlich kennengelernt, sein theologischer Berater, der Generalprior des AugustinerordensAegidius de Viterbo, war ein entschiedener Anhänger Ficinos. Die einzelnen Tableaus des Deckenfreskos zeigen in dieser Interpretation den Aufstieg der in Leiblichkeit und Laster befangenen menschlichen Seele zurück zu ihrem göttlichen Ursprung, von der Trunkenheit Noahs, der Sintflut und dem Sündenfall über die die Gottebenbildlichkeit betonende Erschaffung Adams, in der die unmittelbar bevorstehende Berührung der Finger den geistigen Funken überspringen lässt, bis zur Scheidung des Lichts von der Finsternis am ersten Tag. Dabei werde Gott immer weniger anthropomorph dargestellt. Mit der Abbildung der heidnischen Sibyllen, gleichberechtigt mit den alttestamentlichen Propheten, habe Michelangelo im Sinne einer Philosophia perennis zum Ausdruck bringen wollen, dass das Christentum die Erfüllung sowohl der altisraelischen als auch der griechischen Weissagungen gebracht habe.^[2]

Stirnwandfresko ‘Jüngstes Gericht’

1532, über zwanzig Jahre später, wurde Michelangelo von Clemens VII. beauftragt, ein weiteres Fresko für die Wand über dem Altar anzufertigen, das das Jüngste Gericht darstellen sollte. Dieses Werk ersetzte drei Fresken des Malers Perugino (Geburt Christi, Auffindung Moses’, Himmelfahrt Mariens).

Michelangelo arbeitete von 1536^[3] bis 1541 an dem Fresko, um es im Alter von 66 Jahren fertigzustellen. Das Gemälde enthält auf über 200 m² ca. 390 Figuren, viele davon überlebensgroß. Es wird angenommen, dass Michelangelo alle Arbeiten an den Fresken ohne Mithilfe anderer Künstler und Assistenten ausführte, was zu seiner Zeit durchaus nicht üblich war.

Das Wandgemälde war Anlass für einen heftigen Streit zwischen Michelangelo und Kardinal Carafa, der die Darstellung als amoralisch und obszön bezeichnete^[4].

Auf diesem Bild stellt sich Michelangelo auf der abgezogenen Haut des Märtyrers Bartholomäus dar.

Rezeption

Durch die Darstellung von Geschlechtsteilen stieß das Gemälde seinerzeit oftmals auf Ablehnung. Kurz vor Michelangelos Tod 1564 wurde der Erlass („Pictura in Cappella Ap[ostoli]ca coopriantur“)verabschiedet, der Übermalungen von als unsittlich empfundenen Ausschnitten vorsah. Die Übermalungen wurden bald begonnen und auch noch viele Jahrzehnte später fortgesetzt. Hiermit beauftragt wurde Daniele da Volterra, was diesem den Spottnamen Braghettone(„Hosenmaler“) eintrug.

Erst bei der letzten ausgiebigen Restaurierung (1980–1994) wurde das Gemälde wieder in seinen Urzustand zurückversetzt, auch durch Behebung der Beschädigungen durch vorangegangene Restaurierungen. Unter anderem wurden dabei Rußspuren entfernt und verschattete, im Laufe der Jahrhunderte nachgedunkelte Flächen aufgehellt, so dass geradezu leuchtende Farben zum Vorschein kamen. Kunsthistoriker hatten lange geglaubt, dass Michelangelo mit sehr gedämpften Farben gemalt habe. Die Nacktheit der Heiligen konnte jedoch nicht wiederhergestellt werden, da Volterra die entsprechenden Stellen abgeschlagen und auf frischen Putz neu freskiert hatte. Die Fresken des Michelangelo für die Sixtinische Kapelle werden mitunter als die bedeutendsten Werke des Künstlers und der ganzen damaligen Kunstepoche bezeichnet.

Restaurierung (1982–1994)

Die Decke der Sistina und die Stirnwand mit dem Jüngsten Gericht wurden ab 1982 unter Finanzierung eines japanischen Konzerns sorgfältig mit destilliertem Wasser und mit einer mit Ammoniumcarbonat verdünnten Lösung restauriert. Nippon Televisionhat die Autorenrechte an 170.000 Metern Film (250 Stunden Spieldauer) und an 500 Dias, auf denen die Fresken vor, während und nach der Restaurierung zu sehen sind.

Schon hundert Jahre nach dem Tod Michelangelos hatten die Versuche begonnen, die ersten durch eindringendes Regenwasser, Schmutz und Kerzenschmauch entstandenen Schäden zu beheben. Doch häufig verschlechterte sich der Zustand der Fresken durch ungeschickte Arbeit. So entstanden im Laufe der Zeit Legenden: Michelangelo selbst habe einen Schleier über seine Fresken gemalt, um einen besonderen Effekt zu erzielen, oder vom Dunkel überlagerte Farben seien ein Charakteristikum des alternden Künstlers. Jetzt sorgen eine neue Dachkonstruktion, Klimaanlage und Feuchtigkeitsregelung dafür, dass die Fresken keinen Schaden mehr nehmen. Ein Spezialläufer in den Vorräumen sorgt sogar dafür, den Besuchern den Straßenstaub von den Schuhen zu nehmen.^[5]

Daniel (Michelangelo) vor und nach der Restaurierung

Bei dieser jüngsten Restaurierung ist eine dicke Schicht von Ruß und anderem Schmutz entfernt worden, und dabei trat eine ungeahnt starke Farbigkeit zu Tage. Die reinen Restaurierungsarbeiten waren 1994 abgeschlossen; am 11. Dezember 1999 fand die feierliche Wiedereröffnung der gesamten restaurierten Kapelle durch Papst Johannes Paul II. statt,^[6] knapp vor Beginn des heiligen Jahres 2000.

Die Restaurierung unter der Leitung des Chefrestaurators Gianluigi Colalucci wurde folgendermaßen ausgeführt: Zuerst wurde die Fläche mit doppelt destilliertem Wasser abgewaschen, dann wurde der größte Teil mit einem Lösungsmittel behandelt, um die Nacharbeiten früherer Restauratoren zu beseitigen. Lösungsmittel und Oberflächenschmutz wurden anschließend mit einem wassergetränkten Schwamm abgewischt. Diese Prozedur wurde mehrfach wiederholt, es lagen aber immer 24 Stunden Trockenzeit dazwischen.

In früheren Zeiten ging man mit dem Kunstwerk derber um. Frühere Restauratoren arbeiteten mit Brot und Wasser. War der Schmutz zu hartnäckig, diente griechischer Harzwein als Lösungsmittel. Es entstand eine Schicht, die zwar schützte, aber auch die Farben verdunkelte. Bereits wenige Jahrzehnte nach der Fertigstellung ließ man die Fresken durch sog. „mundatores“, also Reiniger, bearbeiten. Frische Farben sollten durch Leinfirnis erreicht werden, die sich mit dem Untergrund verbanden, also in das Originalmaterial des Freskos eindrangen. Damit waren spätere Restaurierungen an der Originalschicht ausgeschlossen.

Solcher Vorgang sieht inzwischen anders aus: Zuerst werden Ruß und Schmutz im Labor untersucht. Die Konzentration des Lösungsmittels kann dann der jeweiligen Verschmutzung angepasst werden. Das Lösungsmittel besteht aus einer Mischung aus Ammonium- und Natriumhydrogencarbonat, Carboxymethylcellulose und Fungiziden, verdünnt mit destilliertem Wasser. Die Spuren früherer Restauratoren lassen sich durch Infrarot-Analysen sichtbar machen. Die Schäden im Mauerwerk sind mittlerweile beträchtlich. An Stellen, wo sich der Putz vom Mauerwerk abzulösen droht, wird mit einer Spritze ein PVC-Kleber unter den Putz gebracht.

Im Oktober 2014 wurde eine neue LED-Beleuchtung in Betrieb genommen, die durch die Fenster eindringendes Tageslicht simuliert. Zudem wurde eine ausfahrbare Beleuchtung für besondere Anlässe installiert. Sie soll etwa beim Konklave den Kardinälen das Lesen von Wahlzetteln und Dokumenten erleichtern. Ziel des Anbringens einer neuen Beleuchtung war neben der Ausleuchtung der Fresken die durch LED-Technik verminderte Wärmeentwicklung und Energieersparnis bis zu 90 %.^[7][8]

Taufen in der Kapelle

Einer jüngeren Übung folgend, spendet der Papst jedes Jahr am Fest der Taufe des Herrn Kindern (zumeist vatikanischer Angestellter) in der Sixtinischen Kapelle das Sakrament der Taufe. Papst Benedikt XVI. feierte die Messe in italienischer Sprache am historischen Hochaltar der gewesteten Sixtina direkt unter dem Jüngsten Gericht des Michelangelo und nicht wie in früheren Jahren an einem nach der Liturgiereform für Messfeiern jeweils vor dem Hochaltar aufgebauten Volksaltar.^[9]

Orgel

Seit einigen Jahren befindet sich in der Kapelle eine Orgel. Das Werk von Mathis Orgelbau aus Näfels im Kanton Glarus (Schweiz) wurde im Dezember 2002 installiert. Die mechanische Schleifladenorgel besitzt 14 Register auf zwei Manualen und Pedal. Das Instrument hat folgende Disposition:^[10]

I Hauptwerk C–g3 1. Principal 8′ 2. Rohrflöte 8′ 3. Octave 4′ 4. Quinte 2 2⁄3′ 5. Flageolet 2′ 6. Terz 1 3⁄5′ 7. Mixtur II-III 1 1⁄3′

II Positiv C–g3 8. Gedackt 8′ 9. Blockflöte 4′ 10. Principal 2′ 11. Larigot 1 1⁄3′

Pedal C–f1 12. Subbass 16′ 13. Bordun 8′ 14. Choralbass 4′

• Koppeln: II/I, I/P
• Spielhilfen:Tremulant (ganze Orgel)

Literatur

• Berengaudus, Expositio super septem visiones libri Apocalypsis, in: Jacques-Paul Migne, Patrologia. Latina 17, col. 845 C.
• Malcolm Bull, Iconography of the Sistine Ceiling, The Burlington Magazine, 1988
• André Chastel: Die Sixtinische Kapelle, Benziger, Zürich / Köln 1986, 1993, ISBN 3-545-34059-7.
• Ginaluigi Colalucci, Fabrizio Mancinelli et al.: Die Sixtinische Kapelle. Die Deckenfresken. Benziger, Zürich u. Düsseldorf 1997
• Ginaluigi Colalucci, Fabrizio Mancinelli und Loren Partridge: Die Sixtinische Kapelle. Das Jüngste Gericht. Benziger, Zürich u. Düsseldorf 1997
• Pierluigi DeVecchi und Gianluigi Colalucci: Die Sixtinische Kapelle. Das Meisterwerk Michelangelos erstrahlt in neuem Glanz.
  • Orbis 2001
  • 272 Seiten, München, Bassermann, 2007, ISBN 978-3-8094-2080-4
• Joachim von Fiore, Concordia novi et veteris Testamenti, Venedig 1519,
• Michael Petery: Michelangelo. Der Zorn des Schöpfers, edition mbr, München-Ismaning 2008
• Heinrich PfeifferSJDie Sixtinische Kapelle neu entdeckt. Belser, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-7630-2488-9
• Rolf Quednau: Rom bannt Luther. Michelangelos Jüngstes Gericht im Lichte der konfessionellen Spaltung. In: Andreas Tacke (Hrsg.), Kunst und Konfession. Katholische Auftragswerke im Zeitalter der Glaubensspaltung, 1517–1563. Regensburg 2008, S. 348–424.
• Robin Richmond: Michelangelo und die Sixtinische Kapelle. Herder Verlag, Freiburg im Breisgau 1999, ISBN 3-451-26912-0
• King Ross: „Michelangelo“, 384 Seiten, B&T, London, 2002, ISBN 978-0-14-200369-5
• Ernst Steinmann: Die Sixtinische Kapelle. 2 Bände. Bruckmann, München 1901–1905
• Charles de Tolnay: Michelangelo, Band II: The Sistine Ceiling. Princeton 1945, 3. Aufl. 1969
• Charles de Tolnay: Michelangelo, Band V: The Final Period. Princeton 1960, 2. Aufl. 1971

Filme

Aufgeführt sind Spielfilme oder Fernsehserien, in denen die Sixtinische Kapelle (entweder als Studionachbau oder CGI) einen wichtigen Schauplatz der Handlung darstellt.

• Michelangelo – Inferno und Ekstase (1965)
• In den Schuhen des Fischers (1968)
• Michelangelo – Genie und Leidenschaft (1991)
• Illuminati (2009)
• Habemus Papam – Ein Papst büxt aus (2011)
• The Young Pope (2016)

Weblinks

Commons: Sixtinische Kapelle – Album mit Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien

• Virtueller Rundgang durch die Sixtinische Kapelle
• Infos zur Sixtinischen Kapelle bei Vatikanische Museen
• Weitere Seite über die Sixtinische Kapelle (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

1. Hochspringen↑ Johann Wolfgang Goethe: Zweiter römischer Aufenthalt. In: Werke. Hrsg. von Erich Trunz. Bd. 11. 9., überarbeitete Aufl. C.H. Beck, München 1978, S. 350–556, hier S. 386 (Rom, den 23. August 1787).
2. Hochspringen↑ Jörg Lauster: Die Verzauberung der Welt. Eine Kulturgeschichte des Christentums. C.H. Beck, München 2014, S. 284–287.
3. Hochspringen↑ Das Jüngste Gericht. Vatikanische Museen; abgerufen am 15. Oktober 2012.
4. Hochspringen↑ Karl Möseneder: Michelangelos „Jüngstes Gericht“. Über die Schwierigkeiten des Disegno und die Freiheit der Kunst, in dsb., Hg.: Streit um Bilder. Von Byzanz bis Duchamp. Reimer, Berlin 1997, ISBN 3-496-01169-6, S. 95–118 (Lit.)
5. Hochspringen↑ Horst Schlitter im Kölner Stadt-Anzeiger vom 9./10. April 1994, S. 33.
6. Hochspringen↑ Ansprache von Johannes Paul II. bei der Einweihung der vollständig restaurierten Sixtinischen Kapelle
7. Hochspringen↑ http://www.focus.de/auto/neuheiten/coole-effizienz-gottes-erleuchtung_id_4196400.html
8. Hochspringen↑ http://www.osram.de/osram_de/news-und-wissen/innovation/innovation-news-neues-licht-fuer-die-sixtinische-kapelle/index.jsp
9. Hochspringen↑ Radio Vatikan: Taufe in der Sixtina 13. Januar 2008.
10. Hochspringen↑ Informationen zur Orgel

Cappella Sistina   Italian) Giacobbe Giusti, Sistine Chapel
Sistine Chapel, from the altar end
Location on a map of Vatican City
Basic information
Location	Vatican City
Affiliation	Roman Catholic
District	Diocese of Rome
Country	Vatican City
Year consecrated	15 August 1483
Ecclesiastical or organizational status	Papal oratory
Leadership	Francis
Website	mv.vatican.va
Architectural description
Architect(s)	Baccio Pontelli, Giovanni de Dolci[1]
Architectural type	Church
Groundbreaking	1473[1]
Completed	1481[1]
Specifications
Length	40.9 metres (134 ft)
Width (nave)	13.4 metres (44 ft)
Height (max)	20.7 metres (68 ft)
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name: Vatican City
Type	Cultural
Criteria	i, ii, iv, vi
Designated	1984[2]
Reference no.	286
State Party	Holy See
Region	Europe and North America

The Sistine Chapel (/ˌsɪstiːn ˈtʃæpəl/; Latin: Sacellum Sixtinum; Italian: Cappella Sistina[kapˈpɛlla siˈstiːna]) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the Pope, in Vatican City. Originally known as the Cappella Magna, the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who restored it between 1477 and 1480. Since that time, the chapel has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today it is the site of the Papal conclave, the process by which a new pope is selected. The fame of the Sistine Chapel lies mainly in the frescosthat decorate the interior, and most particularly the Sistine Chapel ceiling and The Last Judgment by Michelangelo.

During the reign of Sixtus IV, a team of Renaissance painters that included Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Roselli, created a series of frescos depicting the Life of Moses and the Life of Christ, offset by papal portraits above and trompe l’oeil drapery below. These paintings were completed in 1482, and on 15 August 1483 Sixtus IV celebrated the first mass in the Sistine Chapel for the Feast of the Assumption, at which ceremony the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.^[3][4]

Between 1508 and 1512, under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelopainted the chapel’s ceiling, a project which changed the course of Western art and is regarded as one of the major artistic accomplishments of human civilization.^[5][6] In a different climate after the Sack of Rome, he returned and between 1535 and 1541, painted The Last Judgment for Popes Clement VII and Paul III.^[7] The fame of Michelangelo’s paintings has drawn multitudes of visitors to the chapel ever since they were revealed five hundred years ago.

History

While known as the location of Papal conclaves, the primary function of the Sistine Chapel is as the chapel of the Papal Chapel (Cappella Pontificia), one of the two bodies of the Papal household, called until 1968 the Papal Court (Pontificalis Aula). At the time of Pope Sixtus IV in the late 15th century, the Papal Chapel comprised about 200 people, including clerics, officials of the Vatican and distinguished laity. There were 50 occasions during the year on which it was prescribed by the Papal Calendar that the whole Papal Chapel should meet.^[8] Of these 50 occasions, 35 were masses, of which 8 were held in Basilicas, in general St. Peter’s, and were attended by large congregations. These included the Christmas Day and Easter masses, at which the Pope himself was the celebrant. The other 27 masses could be held in a smaller, less public space, for which the Cappella Maggiore was used before it was rebuilt on the same site as the Sistine Chapel.

The Cappella Maggiore derived its name, the Greater Chapel, from the fact that there was another chapel also in use by the Pope and his retinue for daily worship. At the time of Pope Sixtus IV, this was the Chapel of Pope Nicholas V, which had been decorated by Fra Angelico. The Cappella Maggiore is recorded as existing in 1368. According to a communication from Andreas of Trebizond to Pope Sixtus IV, by the time of its demolition to make way for the present chapel, the Cappella Maggiore was in a ruinous state with its walls leaning.^[9]

The Sistine Chapel as it may have appeared in the 15th century (19th-century drawing)

The present chapel, on the site of the Cappella Maggiore, was designed by Baccio Pontelli for Pope Sixtus IV, for whom it is named, and built under the supervision of Giovannino de Dolci between 1473 and 1481.^[1] The proportions of the present chapel appear to closely follow those of the original. After its completion, the chapel was decorated with frescoes by a number of the most famous artists of the High Renaissance, including Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Pietro Perugino, and Michelangelo.^[9]

The first mass in the Sistine Chapel was celebrated on 15 August 1483, the Feast of the Assumption, at which ceremony the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.^[10]

The Sistine Chapel has maintained its function to the present day, and continues to host the important services of the Papal Calendar, unless the Pope is travelling. There is a permanent choir, the Sistine Chapel Choir, for whom much original music has been written, the most famous piece being Gregorio Allegri‘s Miserere.^[11]

Papal conclave

Main article: Papal conclave

One of the functions of the Sistine Chapel is as a venue for the election of each successive pope in a conclave of the College of Cardinals. On the occasion of a conclave, a chimney is installed in the roof of the chapel, from which smoke arises as a signal. If white smoke appears, created by burning the ballots of the election, a new Pope has been elected. If a candidate receives less than a two-thirds vote, the cardinals send up black smoke — created by burning the ballots along with wet straw and chemical additives — it means that no successful election has yet occurred.^[12]

The conclave also provided for the cardinals a space in which they can hear mass, and in which they can eat, sleep, and pass time attended by servants. From 1455, conclaves have been held in the Vatican; until the Great Schism, they were held in the Dominican convent of Santa Maria sopra Minerva.^[13] Since 1996, John Paul II‘s Apostolic ConstitutionUniversi Dominici gregis requires the cardinals to be lodged in the Domus Sanctae Marthae during a papal conclave, but to continue to vote in the Sistine Chapel.^[14]

Canopies for each cardinal-elector were once used during conclaves—a sign of equal dignity. After the new Pope accepts his election, he would give his new name; at this time, the other Cardinals would tug on a rope attached to their seats to lower their canopies. Until reforms instituted by Saint Pius X, the canopies were of different colours to designate which Cardinals had been appointed by which Pope. Paul VIabolished the canopies altogether, since, under his papacy, the population of the College of Cardinals had increased so much to the point that they would need to be seated in rows of two against the walls, making the canopies obstruct the view of the cardinals in the back row.

Architecture

Structure

 

Exterior of the Sistine Chapel

The chapel is a high rectangular building, for which absolute measurements are hard to ascertain, as available measurements are for the interior: 40.9 metres (134 ft) long by 13.4 metres (44 ft) wide, the dimensions of the Temple of Solomon, as given in the Old Testament.^[15]

Its exterior is unadorned by architectural or decorative details, as is common in many Italian churches of the Medieval and Renaissance eras. It has no exterior façade or exterior processional doorways, as the ingress has always been from internal rooms within the Apostolic Palace (Papal Palace), and the exterior can be seen only from nearby windows and light-wells in the palace. Subsidence and cracking of masonry such as must also have affected the Cappella Maggiore has necessitated the building of very large buttresses to brace the exterior walls. The accretion of other buildings has further altered the exterior appearance of the Chapel.

The building is divided into three stories of which the lowest is a very tall basement level with several utilitarian windows and a doorway giving onto the exterior court. Internally, the basement is robustly vaulted to support the chapel. Above is the main space, the Sistine Chapel, the vaulted ceiling rising to 20.7 metres (68 ft). The building had six tall arched windows down each side and two at either end, several of which have been blocked. Above the vault is a third story with wardrooms for guards. At this level, an open projecting gangway was constructed, which encircled the building supported on an arcade springing from the walls. The gangway has been roofed as it was a continual source of water leaking in to the vault of the Chapel.

A reconstruction of the appearance of the chapel in the 1480s, prior to the painting of the ceiling.

Interior of the Sistine Chapel

The general proportions of the chapel use the length as the unit of measurement. This has been divided by three to get the width and by two to get the height. Maintaining the ratio, there were six windows down each side and two at either end. Defined proportions were a feature of Renaissance architecture and reflected the growing interest in the Classical heritage of Rome.

The ceiling of the chapel is a flattened barrel vault springing from a course that encircles the walls at the level of the springing of the window arches. This barrel vault is cut transversely by smaller vaults over each window, which divide the barrel vault at its lowest level into a series of large pendentives rising from shallow pilasters between each window. The barrel vault was originally painted brilliant-blue and dotted with gold stars, to the design of Piermatteo Lauro de’ Manfredi da Amelia.^[9]The pavement is in opus alexandrinum, a decorative style using marble and coloured stone in a pattern that reflects the earlier proportion in the division of the interior and also marks the processional way from the main door, used by the Pope on important occasions such as Palm Sunday.

A screen or transenna in marble by Mino da Fiesole, Andrea Bregno, and Giovanni Dalmata divides the chapel into two parts.^[16] Originally these made equal space for the members of the Papal Chapel within the sanctuary near the altar and the pilgrims and townsfolk without. However, with growth in the number of those attending the Pope, the screen was moved giving a reduced area for the faithful laity. The transenna is surmounted by a row of ornate candlesticks, once gilt, and has a wooden door, where once there was an ornate door of gilded wrought iron. The sculptors of the transenna also provided the cantoria or projecting choir gallery.

Decoration

Diagram of part of the vertical fresco decoration of the Sistine Chapel

History

The first stage in the decoration of the Sistine Chapel was the painting of the ceiling in blue, studded with gilt stars, and with decorative borders around the architectural details of the pendentives. This was entirely replaced when Michelangelo came to work on the ceiling in 1508.

Of the present scheme of frescos, the earliest part is that of the side walls. They are divided into three main tiers. The central tier of the walls has two cycles of paintings, which complement each other, The Life of Moses and The Life of Christ. They were commissioned in 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV and executed by Domenico Ghirlandaio, Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Cosimo Roselli and their workshops. They originally ran all round the walls, but have since been replaced on both end walls.

The project was perhaps supervised by Perugino, who arrived at the chapel prior to the Florentines. It is probable that the commission of Ghirlandaio, Botticelli and Roselli was part of a reconciliation project between Lorenzo de’ Medici, the de factoruler of Florence, and Pope Sixtus IV. The Florentines started to work in the Sistine Chapel in the Spring of 1481.

Beneath the cycles of The Life of Moses and The Life of Christ, the lower level of the walls is decorated with frescoed hangings in silver and gold. Above the narrative frescos, the upper tier is divided into two zones. At the lower level of the windows is a Gallery of Popes painted at the same time as the Lives. Around the arched tops of the windows are areas known as the lunettes which contain the Ancestors of Christ, painted by Michelangelo as part of the scheme for the ceiling.

The ceiling was commissioned by Pope Julius II and painted by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512. The commission was originally to paint the twelve apostles on the triangular pendentives which support the vault; however, Michelangelo demanded a free hand in the pictorial content of the scheme. He painted a series of nine pictures showing God’s Creation of the World, God’s Relationship with Mankind, and Mankind’s Fall from God’s Grace. On the large pendentives he painted twelve Biblical and Classical men and women who prophesied that God would send Jesus Christ for the salvation of mankind, and around the upper parts of the windows, the Ancestors of Christ.

In 1515, Raphael was commissioned by Pope Leo X to design a series of ten tapestries to hang around the lower tier of the walls.^[17] The tapestries depict events from the Life of St. Peter and the Life of St. Paul, the founders of the Christian Church in Rome, as described in the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. Work began in mid-1515. Due to their large size, manufacture of the hangings was carried out in Brussels, and took four years under the hands of the weavers in the shop of Pieter van Aelst.^[18] Raphael’s tapestries were looted during the Sack of Rome in 1527 and were either burnt for their precious metal content or were scattered around Europe. In the late 20th century, a set was reassembled from several further sets that had been made after the first set, and displayed again in the Sistine Chapel in 1983. The tapestries continue in use at occasional ceremonies of particular importance. The full-size preparatory cartoons for seven of the ten tapestries are known as the Raphael Cartoons and are in London.^[19]

At this point, the decorative scheme displayed a consistent iconographical pattern. The tier of Popes, which, in the scheme intended by Pope Julius, would have appeared immediately below the Twelve Apostles, would have emphasised the apostolic succession. It has been argued that the present scheme shows the two Biblical Testaments merged in order to reveal the Old predicting and framing the New, synthesizing, the logic of the Christian Bible.^[20]

This was disrupted by a further commission to Michelangelo to decorate the wall above the altar with The Last Judgment, 1537–1541. The painting of this scene necessitated the obliteration of two episodes from the Lives, the Nativity of Jesus and the Finding of Moses; several of the Popes and two sets of Ancestors.

Frescoes

Trials of Moses by Botticelli

Southern wall

The southern wall is decorated with the Stories of Moses, painted in 1481–1482. Starting from the altar, they include:

• Moses Leaving to Egypt by Pietro Perugino and assistants
• The Trials of Moses by Sandro Botticelli and his workshop
• The Crossing of the Red Sea by Cosimo Rosselli, Domenico Ghirlandaio or Biagio di Antonio Tucci
• Descent from Mount Sinai by Cosimo Rosselli or Piero di Cosimo
• Punishment of the Rebels by Sandro Botticelli
• Testament and Death of Moses by Luca Signorelli or Bartolomeo della Gatta

Northern wall

The Delivery of the Keys by Perugino

The northern wall houses the Stories of Jesus, dating to 1481–1482. They include:

• Baptism of Christ by Pietro Perugino and assistants
• Temptation of Christ by Sandro Botticelli
• Vocation of the Apostles by Domenico Ghirlandaio
• The Sermon on the Mount, attributed to Cosimo Rosselli
• The Delivery of the Keys by Pietro Perugino
• The Last Supper by Cosimo Rosselli

Eastern wall

• Resurrection of Christ
  

  Resurrection of Christ

  by Hendrick van den Broeck(1572) over Domenico Ghirlandaio’s original

• Disputation over Moses’ Body by Matteo da Lecce(1574) over Luca Signorelli’s original

Michelangelo’s frescoes

The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo

Michelangelo was commissioned by Pope Julius II in 1508 to repaint the vault, or ceiling, of the Chapel. It was originally painted as golden stars on a blue sky. The work was completed between 1508 and 2 November 1512.^[21]He painted the Last Judgment over the altar, between 1535 and 1541, on commission from Pope Paul IIIFarnese.^[22]

Michelangelo was intimidated by the scale of the commission, and made it known from the outset of Julius II’s approach that he would prefer to decline. He felt he was more of a sculptor than a painter, and was suspicious that such a large-scale project was being offered to him by enemies as a set-up for an inevitable fall. For Michelangelo, the project was a distraction from the major marble sculpture that had preoccupied him for the previous few years.^[23]

The sources of Michelangelo’s inspiration are not easily determined; both Joachite and Augustinian theologians were within the sphere of Julius influence.^[24]

Ceiling

Main article: Sistine Chapel ceiling

See also: Gallery of Sistine Chapel ceiling

A section of the Sistine Chapel ceiling

To be able to reach the ceiling, Michelangelo needed a support; the first idea was by Julius’ favoured architect Donato Bramante, who wanted to build for him a scaffold to be suspended in the air with ropes. However, Bramante did not successfully complete the task, and the structure he built was flawed. He had perforated the vault in order to lower strings to secure the scaffold. Michelangelo laughed when he saw the structure, and believed it would leave holes in the ceiling once the work was ended. He asked Bramante what was to happen when the painter reached the perforations, but the architect had no answer.

The matter was taken before the Pope, who ordered Michelangelo to build a scaffold of his own. Michelangelo created a flat wooden platform on brackets built out from holes in the wall, high up near the top of the windows. Contrary to popular belief, he did not lie on this scaffolding while he painted, but painted from a standing position.^[25]

Michelangelo used bright colours, easily visible from the floor. On the lowest part of the ceiling he painted the ancestors of Christ. Above this he alternated male and female prophets, with Jonah over the altar. On the highest section, Michelangelo painted nine stories from the Book of Genesis. He was originally commissioned to paint only 12 figures, the Apostles. He turned down the commission because he saw himself as a sculptor, not a painter. The Pope offered to allow Michelangelo to paint biblical scenes of his own choice as a compromise. After the work was finished, there were more than 300. His figures showed the creation, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, and the Great Flood.

The painted area is about 40 m (131 ft) long by 13 m (43 ft) wide. This means that Michelangelo painted well over 5,000 square feet (460 m²) of frescoes.^[26]

Last Judgement

Michelangelo’s The Last Judgement.

Main article: The Last Judgment (Michelangelo)

The Last Judgement was painted by Michelangelo from 1535 to 1541, between two important historic events, the Sack of Rome by mercenary forces of the Holy Roman Empire in 1527 and the Council of Trent which commenced in 1545. The work was designed on a grand scale, and spans the entire wall behind the altar of the Sistine Chapel. The painting depicts the second coming of Christ on the Day of Judgment as described in the Revelation of John, Chapter 20. High on the wall is the heroic figure of Christ, with the saints clustered in groups around him. At the bottom left of the painting the dead are raised from their graves and ascend to be judged. To the right are those who are assigned to Hell and are dragged down by demons.

The Last Judgement was an object of a bitter dispute between Cardinal Carafa and Michelangelo. Because he depicted naked figures, the artist was accused of immorality and obscenity. A censorship campaign (known as the « Fig-Leaf Campaign ») was organized by Carafa and Monsignor Sernini (Mantua‘s ambassador) to remove the frescoes.

The Pope’s Master of Ceremonies Biagio da Cesena said « it was most disgraceful that in so sacred a place there should have been depicted all those nude figures, exposing themselves so shamefully, and that it was no work for a papal chapel but rather for the public baths and taverns, »^[27] In response Michelangelo worked da Cesena’s semblance into the scene as Minos, judge of the underworld. It is said that when he complained to the Pope, the pontiff responded that his jurisdiction did not extend to hell, so the portrait would have to remain. Michelangelo also painted his own portrait, on the flayed skin held by St Bartholomew.

The genitalia in the fresco were later covered by the artist Daniele da Volterra, whom history remembers by the derogatory nickname « Il Braghettone » (« the breeches-painter »).

Restoration and controversy

Main article: Restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes

The Sistine Chapel’s ceiling restoration began on 7 November 1984. The restoration complete, the chapel was re-opened to the public on 8 April 1994. The part of the restoration in the Sistine Chapel that has caused the most concern is the ceiling, painted by Michelangelo. The emergence of the brightly coloured Ancestors of Christfrom the gloom sparked a reaction of fear that the processes being employed in the cleaning were too severe and removed the original intent of the artist.

Daniel, before and after restoration.

The problem lies in the analysis and understanding of the techniques utilised by Michelangelo, and the technical response of the restorers to that understanding. A close examination of the frescoes of the lunettesconvinced the restorers that Michelangelo worked exclusively in « buon fresco« ; that is, the artist worked only on freshly laid plaster and each section of work was completed while the plaster was still in its fresh state. In other words, Michelangelo did not work « a secco« ; he did not come back later and add details onto the dry plaster.

The restorers, by assuming that the artist took a universal approach to the painting, have taken a universal approach to the restoration. A decision was made that all of the shadowy layer of animal glue and « lamp black », all of the wax, and all of the overpainted areas were contamination of one sort or another: smoke deposits, earlier restoration attempts, and painted definition by later restorers in an attempt to enliven the appearance of the work. Based on this decision, according to Arguimbau’s critical reading of the restoration data that have been provided, the chemists of the restoration team decided upon a solvent that would effectively strip the ceiling down to its paint-impregnated plaster. After treatment, only that which was painted « buon fresco » would remain.^{[citation needed]}

Replicas

The only reproduction of the Sistine Chapel ceiling was painted by Gary Bevans at a church in Goring-by-Sea, West Sussex, England.^[28] A full-size architectural and photographic replica of the entire building was commissioned by the Mexican Government and funded by private donors.^[29] It was on view at Mexico City from June 1 to July 15, 2016; it may then be exhibited at other Mexican cities and possibly elsewhere in the world. It took 2.6 million high definition photographs to reproduce the totality of the frescoes and tapestries.^[30] A video of the history of the Chapel is shown to the visitors before entering the building; inside, a light-and-sound demonstration explains the content of each of the frescoes.

Quotes on Michelangelo’s frescoes in the Sistine Chapel

« Without having seen the Sistine Chapel one can form no appreciable idea of what one man is capable of achieving. »

— Johann Wolfgang Goethe, 23 August 1787, ^[31]

« This work has been and truly is a beacon of our art, and it has brought such benefit and enlightenment to the art of painting that it was sufficient to illuminate a world which for so many hundreds of years had remained in the state of darkness. And, to tell the truth, anyone who is a painter no longer needs to concern himself about seeing innovations and inventions, new ways of painting poses, clothing on figures, and various awe-inspiring details, for Michelangelo gave to this work all the perfection that can be given to such details. »

— Giorgio Vasari on Michelangelo’s frescoes in the Sistine Chapel

Giacobbe Giusti, システィーナ礼拝堂

システィーナ礼拝堂 Cappella Sistina （イタリア語） Sacellum Sixtinum （ラテン語） Giacobbe Giusti, システィーナ礼拝堂
システィーナ礼拝堂内部
バチカン市国における位置
基本情報
所在地	ヴァチカン
宗教	ローマ・カトリック
奉献年	1483年8月15日
教会的現況	ローマ教皇礼拝堂
管理者	フランシスコ
ウェブサイト	mv.vatican.va
建設
建築家	バッチオ・ポンテッリ、ジョヴァンニ・デ・ドルッチ[1]
形式	教会
着工	1473年[1]
完成	1481年[1]
建築物
横幅	40.9メートル (134 ft)
奥行(身廊)	13.4メートル (44 ft)
最長部(最高)	20.7メートル (68 ft)
世界遺産
正式名称: ヴァチカン市国
基準	i, ii, iv, vi
登録日	1984年[2]
登録番号	286
登録区分	文化遺産

システィーナ礼拝堂（システィーナれいはいどう、伊: Cappella Sistina）は、ローマ教皇の公邸であるバチカン宮殿にある礼拝堂。サン・ピエトロ大聖堂北隣に位置するその建物とともに、ミケランジェロ、ボッティチェッリ、ペルジーノ、ピントゥリッキオら、盛期ルネサンスを代表する芸術家たちが内装に描いた数々の装飾絵画作品で世界的に有名な礼拝堂である。とくにローマ教皇ユリウス2世の注文でミケランジェロが1508年から1512年にかけて描いた天井画と、ローマ教皇クレメンス7世が注文し、ローマ教皇パウルス3世が完成を命じた、1535年から1541年にかけて描いた『最後の審判』はミケランジェロの絵画作品の頂点とされている。

もともとバチカン宮殿に存在していた古い礼拝堂を1477年から1480年にかけてローマ教皇シクストゥス4世が建て直させた建物で、その教皇名（伊: Sisto IV）にちなんでシスティーナ礼拝堂と名付けられた。この建て直し時には、ペルジーノ、ボッティチェッリ、ギルランダイオらの芸術家たちが、一連の内装フレスコ壁画を手がけている。壁画に描かれているのは『旧約聖書』からの「モーセの生涯の物語」ならびに『新約聖書』からの「キリストの生涯の物語」と、歴代のローマ教皇の肖像画で、これらは1482年から1483年8月にかけて描かれた作品となっている^[3]。落成したシスティーナ礼拝堂で最初のミサを執り行ったのはシクストゥス4世だった。このミサは聖母被昇天に捧げられたもので、システィーナ礼拝堂を聖母マリアに奉献することを表明する式典でもあった^[4]。

シクストゥス4世以降、システィーナ礼拝堂は宗教的施設とローマ教皇執務室という二つの役割を果たしてきた。現在ではローマ教皇を選出する会議であるコンクラーヴェの会場としても使用されている。

歴史

システィーナ礼拝堂はローマ教皇を選出するコンクラーヴェが開催される場所として広く知られている。しかしながら、教皇礼拝堂 (Cappella Pontificia) の一角を構成するシスティーナ礼拝堂は、1968年まで教皇宮殿 (Pontificalis Aula) と呼ばれていた教皇公邸 (Domus Pontificalis) としての性格も持っている。シクストゥス4世が在位していた15世紀後半の教皇礼拝堂には、聖職者、聖座職員、高位の平信徒らおよそ200人の人々が関わっており、年間50件におよぶ式典、行事を執り行うことが定められていた^[5]。これらの行事で35件を占めるのがミサで、そのうち8件が通常サン・ピエトロ大聖堂で実施されており、多数の信徒が集まる一大式典だった。クリスマスやイースターのミサには教皇自ら典礼として参加していた。残り27件のミサは比較的小規模で大きな施設を必要としなかったこともあって、システィーナ礼拝堂が完成する以前にはマッジョーレ礼拝堂が使用されていた。

ローマ教皇シクストゥス4世

ヴァチカン宮殿にはマッジョーレ礼拝堂のほかにも、ローマ教皇と教皇庁職員が日々の祈りを捧げる場所として使用される礼拝堂があり、シクストゥス4世在位時にはニコラウス5世が建てた、フラ・アンジェリコが内部装飾を手がけた礼拝堂が使用されていた。マッジョーレ礼拝堂は少なくとも1368年までは存在していたことが記録として残っている。しかしながら、後年のトラブゾンのアンドレアスとシクストゥス4世とのやりとりには、当時のマッジョーレ礼拝堂は荒廃して壁は傾いており、新しい礼拝堂を建設するために取り壊す必要があることが記されている^[6]。

システィーナ礼拝堂はマッジョーレ礼拝堂の跡地に建てられている。シクストゥス4世の命でバッチオ・ポンテッリ (en:Baccio Pontelli) が設計し、ジョヴァンニ・デ・ドリッチの総指揮のもとで1473年から1481年にかけて建設された^[1]。現在でもシスティーナ礼拝堂の外観はほぼ建設当時のままである。建物の完成後、盛期ルネサンスを代表する芸術家であるボッティチェッリ、ギルランダイオ、ペルジーノ、ミケランジェロらによるフレスコ画で内部装飾がなされた^[6]。

完成後のシスティーナ礼拝堂で最初のミサが執り行われたのは1483年8月9日である。このミサは聖母被昇天に捧げられたもので、システィーナ礼拝堂が聖母マリアに奉献されることを公表する式典でもあった^[4]。現在でもシスティーナ礼拝堂はさまざまな式典や行事などに使用されており、ローマ教皇が外遊などで不在の場合を除いて、ローマ教皇庁の公式行事の重要な開催場所である。世界最古の聖歌隊の一つであるシスティーナ礼拝堂聖歌隊 (en:Sistine Chapel Choir) は、ルネサンス期に作曲された合唱曲を現在にそのまま伝えており、なかでもローマ楽派の作曲家グレゴリオ・アレグリの『ミゼレーレ』がとくに有名な楽曲となっている^[7]。

コンクラーヴェ

詳細は「コンクラーヴェ」を参照

システィーナ礼拝堂が持つ最重要機能として、枢機卿団 (en:College of Cardinals) が次代のローマ教皇を選出する会議であるコンクラーヴェの開催場所となっていることがあげられる。コンクラーヴェ開催中にはシスティーナ礼拝堂の屋根に煙突が設置され、そこから排気される煙の色でコンクラーヴェの状況が告知される。投票によって新たなローマ教皇が選出された場合には、投票に使用された用紙が燃やされて白い煙があがる。投票の結果、候補者の最大得票数が全体の三分の二に満たない場合には、投票用紙とともに湿った藁と化学添加剤が燃やされて煙突から黒い煙があがり、次代のローマ教皇は未決定であるということを知らせる^[8]。

コンクラーヴェの期間中は枢機卿団は外出が許されず、ミサの出席、食事、就寝など日々の生活はすべて、特に選別された世話係の手を借りてコンクラーヴェ会場内で行わなければならなかった。1455年以降コンクラーヴェはヴァチカン宮殿内で実施されており、教皇が複数鼎立した教会大分裂まではドミニコ会教会堂のサンタ・マリア・ソプラ・ミネルヴァ教会がコンクラーヴェの開催場所となっていた^[9]。

ヨハネ・パウロ2世が1996年に発布した『使徒憲章』「使徒座空位とローマ教皇選出について」(en:Universi Dominici Gregis) で、コンクラーヴェ期間中の枢機卿の宿舎はコンクラーヴェ会場のシスティーナ礼拝堂ではなくドムス・サンクテ・マルテ（聖マルタの家 (en:Domus Sanctae Marthae)）とするように変更されたが、ローマ教皇選出の投票自体は従前どおりシスティーナ礼拝堂で実施するよう定められている^[10]。

建物

外観

Giacobbe Giusti, システィーナ礼拝堂

システィーナ礼拝堂の外観

システィーナ礼拝堂はレンガ造りの長方形の建物である。簡素な外観で、建築様式上の特徴も装飾もなく、イタリアでよく見られる中世からルネサンス期に建てられた教会堂と変わりはない。ファサードも行列用の入場口もなく、礼拝堂への入り口はヴァチカン宮殿内から通じる一箇所のみとなっており、システィーナ礼拝堂はヴァチカン宮殿の窓あるいは光井戸からわずかに垣間見える程度である。礼拝堂は三階建てで、一階部分がもっとも大きく、実用的な窓がはめ込まれた壁面と円天井、そしてヴァチカン宮殿へと通じる出入り口で構成されている。システィーナ礼拝堂のもっとも重要な階層といえる二階は奥行き40.9m、幅13.4mで、これは『旧約聖書』の『列王記』6章にあるソロモン王の神殿の比率と同じである^[11]。円天井の高さは20.7mで、壁両側面にはそれぞれ6枚の細長いアーチ状の窓があり、片端面には2枚の窓がある。三階部分は衛士の控え室となっている。三階部分には建築途中で放棄されている、外壁のアーチ状構造物に支えられた、礼拝堂を巡る渡り通路がある。この渡り廊下の屋根からは頻繁に雨漏りが生じている。

地盤沈下とレンガのひび割れに悩まされたマッジョーレ礼拝堂を教訓として、システィーナ礼拝堂には外壁を補強する大規模な控え壁が採用された。システィーナ礼拝堂より後に建てられたヴァチカン宮殿付属の建物は、システィーナ礼拝堂とはまったく異なった外観で設計されている。

内装

システィーナ礼拝堂内部の東壁面と北壁面。

システィーナ礼拝堂二階の天井は、窓上部の壁から始まる丸みの少ないアーチ状の円天井である。この円天井の最下層部分は、それぞれの窓の間にある細い装飾用の付柱から伸びる大きな三角形のペンデンティヴに接している。当初の円天井は、ピエルマッテオ・ダメリア (en:Piermatteo Lauro de’ Manfredi da Amelia) がデザインした、金色の星がちりばめられた鮮やかな青一色で塗装されていた^[6]。床面は建設当初の内部レイアウトに従って、大理石と色石が使用されたコスマテスク様式 (en:Cosmatesque) の飾り石張りとなっている。また、聖枝祭のような重要な式典時にローマ教皇の行列が足を進める箇所には特別な飾りが施されている。

ミーノ・ダ・フィエゾーレ (en:Mino da Fiesole)、アンドレア・ブレーニョ (en:Andrea Bregno)、ジョヴァンニ・ダルマータ (en:Giovanni Dalmata) の手による大理石のトランセンナ（彫刻が施された柵）が室内を大きく二分している^[12]。このトランセンナは祭壇近くの礼拝堂関係者の場所と、巡礼者や礼拝堂を訪れる近隣住民ら一般信徒の場所を隔てるために使用されており、当初は礼拝堂の中心に置かれて礼拝堂関係者と関係者以外に同じ面積が割り当てられていた。しかしながら、ローマ教皇の随行員の増加に伴ってトランセンナが動かされ、一般信徒に与えられる場所は徐々に少なくなっていった。トランセンナの上部には一列に並んだ華美な燭台が置かれており、木製の扉がついている。かつてこの燭台は金箔で覆われており、扉も金箔が貼られた精緻な鉄製の扉だった。このトランセンナを制作した前述の芸術家たちの作品は、『カントリア』や聖歌隊席などの彫刻にも残っている。

ラファエロのタペストリ

『アナニヤの死』、ラファエロが描いた下絵。

ラファエロが描いた下絵をもとに制作されたタペストリ。

システィーナ礼拝堂で開催されるとくに重要な式典では、両側の壁がラファエロが礼拝堂のためにデザインした「聖ペテロの生涯」と「聖パウロの生涯」を描き出したタペストリで覆われる。『福音書』と『使徒行伝』からのエピソードをモチーフとしたもので、ラファエロが描いたデザイン用の下絵『ラファエロのカルトン』10点のうち現存する7点をイギリス王家のロイヤル・コレクションが所蔵しており、1865年からロンドンのヴィクトリア&アルバート博物館で展示されている^[13]。このラファエロのタペストリは1527年のローマ略奪で収奪されており、貴金属が剥ぎ取られヨーロッパ中に散逸してしまっていた。20世紀後半にシスティーナ礼拝堂に戻され（新しく作り直されたタペストリもある）、1983年から元通りシスティーナ礼拝堂で使用されるようになった。

内部装飾

三層に別れたシスティーナ礼拝堂の内部壁面。下から、金銀の布を描いたフレスコ画、キリストの生涯を描いたフレスコ画、歴代ローマ教皇の肖像とキリストの祖先たち。

システィーナ礼拝堂の内部壁面は三層に大別できる。下層は金銀の布が描かれたフレスコ画である。中層には互いを補完しあう「モーセの生涯の物語」と「キリストの生涯の物語」のフレスコ画がある。これらのフレスコ画は1480年にローマ教皇シクストゥス4世が依頼したもので、ギルランダイオ、ボッティチェッリ、ペルジーノ、ロッセッリ (en:Cosimo Roselli) らが、それぞれが率いていた工房の弟子たちとともに制作に当たった。おそらく当時すでにローマにあって、システィーナ礼拝堂内部装飾の責任者になっていたと考えられているペルジーノのもとに集められた当時のフィレンツェを代表する画家たちは、1480年10月27日にフィレンツェを発ってローマへと向かい、1481年の初春から壁画制作を開始している。フィレンツェの画家たちがシスティーナ礼拝堂の内部装飾に任命された背景には、当時シクストゥス4世と仲違いしていた、フィレンツェの支配者ロレンツォ・デ・メディチとの関係修復という意味合いもあった。上層はさらに上下に二分割できる。下部には歴代ローマ教皇の肖像が等身大で描かれている。上部のルネットにはミケランジェロの天井画の一部として、キリストの祖先とされる歴史上の人物たちが描かれている。

ミケランジェロがローマ教皇ユリウス2世の命でシスティーナ礼拝堂天井画を描いたのは1508年から1512年にかけてである。この天井画には『創世記』のエピソードから「天地創造」、「アダムとイヴ」、「失楽園」など9点のフレスコ画が描かれている。円天井を支える三角形のペンデンティヴには、神が救世主キリストを遣わすことを預言した『旧約聖書』の7人の預言者と古代の巫女（シビュラ）が描かれている。

1515年に、ローマ教皇レオ10世の命で、ラファエロが礼拝堂壁面最下層を飾る10点のタペストリをデザインした^[14]。当時のラファエロは25歳にしてフィレンツェではすでに多くの富裕なパトロンを持つ有力な芸術家だった。そしてラファエロは野心ある若者であり、ローマ教皇をパトロンに持つという栄誉を希求していた^[15]。ローマ教皇に気に入られ、活気溢れるローマに魅せられたラファエロは、その後の生涯をローマで送ることになる。

ラファエロはこのシスティーナ礼拝堂のタペストリ制作依頼を、自身の作品とミケランジェロの作品とを比較する絶好の機会だと見なしていた。またラファエロにタペストリ制作を命じたレオ10世にも、前任のローマ教皇ユリウス2世がミケランジェロに描かせた天井画への対抗心があったと考えられている^[16]。ミケランジェロがタペストリのモチーフとしたのは『使徒行伝』で、1515年半ばからデザインの制作が開始された。織り上げるためにブリュッセルに送られたタペストリのデザインは非常に大規模なもので、ピーテル・ファン・アールストの工房で4年間をかけて完成している^[17]。

フレスコ画

ボッティチェッリとその工房が描いた『モーセの試練』。

南壁面

システィーナ礼拝堂の南壁面は、1481年から1482年にかけて描かれた「モーセの生涯の物語」で装飾されている。主祭壇から順に以下の作品となっている。

• 『モーセのエジプト脱出』 – ペルジーノとその弟子作
• 『モーセの試練』 – ボッティチェッリとその工房作
• 『紅海横断』 – ロッセッリとギルランダイオまたはビアッジョ・ダントーニオ (en:Biagio d’Antonio) 作
• 『シナイ山から下山したモーゼ』 – ロッセッリまたはピエロ・ディ・コジモ作
• 『反逆者たちの懲罰』 – ボッティチェッリ作
• 『モーゼの死と遺言』 – シニョレッリとバルトロメオ・デッラ・ガッタ (en:Bartolomeo della Gatta)

北壁面

システィーナ礼拝堂の南壁面は、1481年から1482年にかけて描かれた「キリストの生涯の物語」で装飾されている。

• 『キリストの洗礼』 – ペルジーノとその弟子作
• 『キリストの誘惑』 – ボッティチェッリ作
• 『使徒の改宗』 – ギルランダイオ作
• 『聖ペテロへの天国の鍵の授与』 – ペルジーノ作
• 『最後の晩餐』 – ロッセッリ作

西壁面

• 『キリストの復活』 – ヘンドリク・ファン・デン・ブルック作（1572年）、ギルランダイオのフレスコ画に上描き
• 『モーセの遺体をめぐる争い』 – マッテオ・ダ・レッチェ作（1574年）、シニョレッリのフレスコ画に上描き

壁面フレスコ画

• 

  『反逆者たちの懲罰』
  （ボッティチェッリ）

• 

  『キリストの洗礼』
  （ペルジーノとその弟子）

• 

  『使徒の改宗』
  （ギルランダイオ）

• 

  『聖ペテロへの天国の鍵の授与』
  （ペルジーノ）

• 

  『最後の晩餐』
  （ロッセッリ）

ミケランジェロのフレスコ画

天井画

ミケランジェロが描いたシスティーナ礼拝堂天井画『アダムの創造』。神が人間を創造し、命を与えるエピソードの象徴となっている、システィーナ礼拝堂のフレスコ画の中でも世界的にもっとも有名な作品である。

詳細は「システィーナ礼拝堂天井画」を参照

ミケランジェロがローマ教皇ユリウス2世にシスティーナ礼拝堂天井画の描き直しを命じられたのは1508年だった。それまで、天井とヴォールトには金の星々がきらめく青い空が描かれていた^[6]。この縦40m、横13mで、総面積は460平方メートルという大規模な天井画^[18]の制作は1508年に開始され、1512年11月2日に完成した^[19]。

当初ミケランジェロはユリウス2世からのこの壮大な天井画制作依頼を嫌がり、ユリウス2世が考えていた計画の下では作業をしたくないと断っている。ミケランジェロは自身を画家ではなく彫刻家であると自負しており、このような大規模で実現困難な絵画制作がまわってきたのは、失敗させて自分を陥れるための罠なのではないかと疑ってさえいた。ミケランジェロにとってみれば、システィーナ礼拝堂の絵画制作依頼は、数年前から専念していた大理石彫刻の制作の邪魔にしか思えなかったのである^[20]。

ミケランジェロが天井画のデザインとして採用したのは、依頼主のユリウス2世が持っていたシスティーナ礼拝堂の天井に空を背景とした十二使徒を描きだすという構想^[21]からかけ離れた、はるかに複雑なものだった。ミケランジェロが天井画に『創世記』を中心とした構成に変更した理由は定かではない。この天井画に対して影響を与えたような過去の作品は存在せず、ミケランジェロが描きあげたこの絵画はそれまでの絵画作品とは隔絶したものといえる^[22]。

ユリウス2世は、天井に絵を描くための足場制作をミケランジェロ自身に任せた。ミケランジェロはシスティーナ礼拝堂の壁面、窓最上部とほぼ同じ高さの箇所に穴を開けて腕木を渡し、その上に平らな板を載せて足場とした。そしてこの板に仰向けとなって天井画を描いたといわれている^[23]。 システィーナ礼拝堂の天井中央部分に描かれているのは『旧約聖書』に記された『創世記』の9つのエピソードで、これら9つのエピソードはさらに大きく3つの物語に分けることができる^[24]。神による天地創造の物語、神による最初の人間であるアダムとイヴの人類創造と神にそむいたアダムとイヴがエデンの園から追放される失楽園の物語、そして大洪水とノア一族」の物語である。作品の構成としては、必ずしも『創世記』に記述されている時系列順とはなっていない。9つのエピソードからなる3つの場面は互いの内容を補完しあう構成となっており、これは中世の絵画作品やステンドグラスでよく用いられた技法である^[25]。

天井中央部に描かれている『創世記』のエピソードは、主祭壇から後陣に向かって以下の順番になっている。

• 『光と闇の分離』
• 『太陽、月、植物の創造』
• 『大地と水の分離』
• 『アダムの創造』
• 『エヴァの創造』
• 『原罪と楽園追放』
• 『ノアの燔祭』
• 『大洪水』
• 『ノアの泥酔』

システィーナ礼拝堂の左右それぞれ5箇所と後陣側と主祭壇側それぞれ1箇所にあるペンデンティヴ部分には、この天井画の中で最も大きな人物像が描かれている。描かれているのはメシアの到来、あるいは到来するメシアの容貌を預言したとされる12名の人物たちである。これら12名のうち7名は『旧約聖書』に記された男性預言者で、残る5名がシビュラと呼ばれる古代の女性巫女となっている。主祭壇側には預言者ヨナが、後陣側には預言者ゼカリヤがそれぞれ描かれている。残りの10名は左右に分かれて男女交互に描かれており、プットー（幼い天使）が支える彩色大理石板に刻まれた銘文によって誰が描かれているのかを識別することができる。主祭壇上部のヨナから時計回りに以下の人物像が描かれている。

• 『ヨナ』 – 主祭壇上部
• 『エレミヤ』
• 『ペルシアの巫女』 (en:Persian Sibyl)
• 『エゼキエル』
• 『エリュトレイアの巫女』 (en:Erythraean Sibyl)
• 『ヨエル』
• 『ゼカリヤ』 – 後陣上部
• 『デルフォイの巫女』 (en:Delphic Sibyl)
• 『イザヤ』
• 『クエマの巫女』 (en:Cumaean Sibyl)
• 『ダニエル』
• 『リビアの巫女』 (en:Libyan Sibyl)

建物四隅にもペンデンティヴがあり、ミケランジェロはこの部分に『旧約聖書』に登場するユダヤの偉人とされるモーセ、エステル、ダヴィデ、ユディトによるイスラエルの民救済のエピソードを描いている。

• 青銅の蛇
• ハマンの処刑
• ダヴィデとゴリアテ
• ユディトとホロフェルネス

これらのほかに、14箇所のアーチ状のルネット部分と、8箇所の三角状のスパンドレル (en:Spandrel) 部分には、アブラハムらキリストの祖先とされている人物とその家族が描かれている。

天井中央部分の『創世記』

• 

  『太陽、月、植物の創造』

• 

  『イヴの創造』

• 

  『原罪と楽園追放』

• 

  『ノアの燔祭』

• 

  『大洪水』

ペンデンティヴ部分の預言者と巫女

• 

  『ヨナ』

• 

  『エリュトレイアの巫女』

• 

  『ゼカリヤ』

• 

  『デルフォイの巫女』

• 

  『イザヤ』

最後の審判

システィーナ礼拝堂主祭壇の『最後の審判』。

詳細は「最後の審判 (ミケランジェロ)」を参照

ミケランジェロは、ローマ教皇クレメンス7世と、後継のローマ教皇パウルス3世の命で、1533年から1541年にかけて主祭壇背後の壁に『最後の審判』を描いた^[26]。これはローマのルネサンス芸術崩壊の引き金となった、神聖ローマ皇帝カール5世の軍勢がローマに侵攻したいわゆるローマ略奪（1527年5月）よりも後年で、トリエント公会議（1545年）の直前となる時期にあたる。『最後の審判』はシスティーナ礼拝堂主祭壇の後壁面全体に描かれた、1370cm × 1200cmという非常に大規模な作品で、キリストの再臨と現世の終末を、天使に囲まれたキリストが生前の行いによって人々の魂を裁いている情景となっている。

この作品は、枢機卿オリヴィエーロ・カラファ (en:Cardinal Carafa) とミケランジェロとの間にちょっとした騒動を巻き起こした。ミケランジェロが裸体の人物像を多く描いたことが、不道徳で猥雑であると非難されたのである。そして『最後の審判』の裸体を隠そうという「イチジクの葉運動」と呼ばれる一種の検閲運動が、カラファとマントヴァ公使セルニーニによって開始された。ローマ教皇の儀典長ビアジョ・ダ・チェゼーナも「このうえなく下品であり、聖なる場所にこのような裸体画があってはならない。恥ずべき作品で、ローマ教皇の礼拝堂には相応しくなく、公衆浴場か酒場に飾るべきだ」と酷評している^[27]。ミケランジェロは不仲だったチェザーナを地獄の裁判官ミノスとして『最後の審判』に描いた。チェザーナがこのことについてパウルス3世に不平をもらすと、ローマ教皇の権威は地獄にまでは及ばないと返されたといわれている^[28]。オリジナルの『最後の審判』に描かれていた人物の局部は、後年になって「ズボンの画家 (Il Braghettone )」と嘲笑めいたあだ名をつけられたダニエレ・ダ・ヴォルテッラによって布で覆われた状態で上描きされた^[29]、

フレスコ画修復

詳細は「システィーナ礼拝堂壁画修復」を参照

修復前後のダニエル。

システィーナ礼拝堂のフレスコ画、とくにミケランジェロが描いた天井画は過去に何度も修復されており、もっとも近年で大規模な修復作業が、1979年に開始された試験的な修復を経て1980年6月から1999年12月にかけて実施された。修復作業を手がけたのはジャンルイージ・コラルッチ、マウリツィオ・ロッシ、ピエルジョルジョ・ボネッティ、ブルーノ・バラッティらからなるチームだった^[30]。修復作業の様子は克明に記録されており、記録写真を担当したのは日本テレビから嘱託された美術写真家の岡村崔である^[30]。

最初に修復対象となったのはミケランジェロの天井画のルネット部分で、1984年に完了している。天井画全体の修復が完了したのは1989年12月のことで、引き続きミケランジェロの『最後の審判』の修復が開始された。フレスコ画全体の修復作業の様子がローマ教皇ヨハネ・パウロ2世に公開されたのは、全体の完成間近の1994年4月8日だった^[31]。最後に修復された箇所はボッティチェッリ、ギルランダイオ、ペルジーノらが描いた壁面のフレスコ画で、1999年12月11日になって公開された^[32] 。

修復後、それまでロウソクの煙による煤などの影響でほとんどモノクロームに見えるまでに色褪せていた色彩は鮮やかにきらめき、春を思わせる薄いピンク色、青リンゴ色、色鮮やかな黄色、空色などの彩色がパールグレイの壁面と好対照を成している。この修復により、今まで煤に覆われていたフレスコ画はもとの彩りを取り戻したのである^[32]。しかしながら、この修復作業と結果にも賛否両論が存在する。否定派はオリジナルのミケランジェロのフレスコ画に表現されていた、明暗や陰影、微細な表現などが汚れの除去とともに失われてしまったと主張している^[33]。

複製

日本・徳島県鳴門市の大塚国際美術館には、システィーナ礼拝堂天井画を陶板にて原寸大で再現した展示がある。 陶板による複製画は、オリジナル作品とは違い、2000年以上にわたってそのままの色と姿で残るので、これからの文化財の記録保存のあり方に大いに貢献するといわれている。現にオリジナルの礼拝堂天井画は近年劣化に悩まされており、現在では入場制限も検討されている^[34]。

脚注

1. ^ ^a b c d Ekelund, Hébert & Tollison 2006, p. 313
2. ^ “Vatican City”. Whc.unesco.org. 2011年8月9日閲覧。
3. ^ Monfasani, John (1983), “A Description of the Sistine Chapel under Pope Sixtus IV”, Artibus et Historiae (IRSA s.c.) 4 (7): 9–18, doi:10.2307/1483178, ISSN 0391-9064, JSTOR 1483178.
4. ^ ^a b Pietrangeli 1986, p. 28
5. ^ Pietrangeli 1986, p. 24
6. ^ ^a b c d John Shearman, « The Chapel of Sixtus IV ». In Pietrangeli 1986
7. ^ Stevens, Abel & Floy, James. « Allegri’s Miserere ». The National Magazine, Carlton & Phillip, 1854. 531.
8. ^ Saunders, Fr. William P. « The Path to the Papacy« . Arlington Catholic Herald, 17 March 2005. Retrieved on 2 June 2008.
9. ^ Chambers, D. S. (1978), “Papal Conclaves and Prophetic Mystery in the Sistine Chapel”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes (The Warburg Institute) 41: 322–326, doi:10.2307/750878, JSTOR 750878.
10. ^ Domus Sanctae Marthae & The New Urns Used in the Election of the Pope from EWTN
11. ^ Campbell, Ian (1981), “The New St Peter’s: Basilica or Temple?”, Oxford Art Journal 4 (1): 3–8, doi:10.1093/oxartj/4.1.3, ISSN 0142-6540検索された 2014-06-06
12. ^ Hersey 1993, p. 180
13. ^ Cheney, Iris. Review of « Raphael’s Cartoons in the Collection of Her Majesty The Queen and the Tapestries for the Sistine Chapel » by John Shearman ». The Art Bulletin, Volume 56, No. 4, December 1974. 607–609.
14. ^ Talvacchia 2007, p. 150
15. ^ Talvacchia 2007, p. 80
16. ^ Hall, Marcia B. Rome: Artistic Centers of the Italian Renaissance. London: Cambridge University Press 18 April 2005. 138.
17. ^ Talvacchia 2007, p. 152
18. ^ Michelangelo – The Sistine Chapel Ceiling, « Seven Common Questions About the Frescoes »
19. ^ Graham-Dixon 2008, p. 2
20. ^ Graham-Dixon 2008, p. 1
21. ^ Giacometti, Massimo (1986). The Sistine Chapel.
22. ^ Graham-Dixon 2008, p. xii
23. ^ Michelangelo 1999, pp. 64–66
24. ^ Paoletti and Radke pp. 402 – 403
25. ^ See en:Poor Man’s Bible
26. ^ Stollhans, Cynthia (1988), “Michelangelo’s Nude Saint Catherine of Alexandria”, Woman’s Art Journal (Woman’s Art, Inc.) 19 (1): 26–30, doi:10.2307/1358651, ISSN 02707993, JSTOR 1358651.
27. ^ Vasari 1987, p. 379
28. ^ Reported by Lodovico Domenichi in Historia di detti et fatti notabili di diversi Principi & huommi privati moderni (1556), p. 668
29. ^ Simons, Marlise (19 June 1991), “Vatican Restorers Are Ready for ‘Last Judgment”, New York Times 2009年3月7日閲覧。
30. ^ ^a b Carlo Pietrangeli, Foreword to The Sistine Chapel, ed. Massimo Giacometti. (1986) Harmony Books, ISBN 0-517-56274-X
31. ^ “Homily preached by the Holy Father John Paul II at the mass of to celebrate the unveiling of the restorations of Michelangelo’s frescoes in the Sistine Chapel”. Vatican Publishing House (1994年4月8日). 2007年9月28日閲覧。
32. ^ ^a b Pietrangeli 1994
33. ^ Beck (1995)
34. ^ バチカン、システィーナ礼拝堂の入場制限を検討

参考文献

• Deimling, Barbara (2000), Sandro Botticelli 1444/45-1510, Köln: Taschen, ISBN 3-8228-5992-3
• Earls, Irene (1987), Renaissance Art: A Topical Dictionary, Westport: Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-24658-0
• Ekelund, Robert B.; Hébert, Robert F.; Tollison, Robert D. (2006), The Marketplace of Christianity, Cambridge: MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-05082-X
• Graham-Dixon, Andrew (2008), Michelangelo and the Sistine Chapel, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-85365-1
• Hersey, George (1993), High Renaissance Art in St. Peter’s and the Vatican, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-32782-5
• Michelangelo (1999), Bull, George, ed., Michelangelo, Life, Letters, and Poetry, Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-283770-2
• Pietrangeli, Carlo, ed. (1986), The Sistine Chapel, New York: Harmony Books, ISBN 0-517-56274-X
• Seymour, Charles (1972), Michelangelo, the Sistine Chapel Ceiling: illustrations, introductory essays, backgrounds and sources, critical essay, New York: W. W. Norton, ISBN 0-393-04319-3
• Stinger, Charles (1998), The Renaissance in Rome, Bloomington: Indianapolis, ISBN 0-253-21208-1
• Talvacchia, Bette (2007), Raphael, Oxford Oxfordshire: Phaidon Press, ISBN 978-0-7148-4786-3
• Vasari, Giorgio (1987), The Lives of the Artists, George Bull, New York: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-044500-5
• Wright, Lawrence (1983), Perspective in Perspective, London: Routledge & K. Paul, ISBN 0-7100-0791-4
• Pietrangeli, Hirst and Colalucci, eds. (1994). The Sistine Chapel: A Glorious Restoration. Italy, Harry N Abrams
• James Beck and Michael Daley, Art Restoration, the Culture, the Business and the Scandal, W.W. Norton, 1995. ISBN 0-393-31297-6

関連文献

• Ettlinger, Leopold (1965), The Sistine Chapel before Michelangelo: Religious Imagery and Papal Primacy, Oxford: Clarendon Press, OCLC 230168041
• King, Ross (2003), Michelangelo & the Pope’s Ceiling, New York: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-200369-7
• Lewine, Carol (1993), The Sistine Chapel Walls and the Roman Liturgy, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, ISBN 0-271-00792-3
• Hirst, Michael; Colalucci, Gianluigi; Mancinelli, Fabrizio; Shearman, John; Winner, Matthias; Maeder, Edward; De Vecchi, Pierluigi; Nazzareno, Gabrielli et al. (1994), Pietrangeli, Carlo, ed., The Sistine Chapel: A Glorious Restoration, Takashi Okamura (photographer), New York: H.N. Abrams, ISBN 0-8109-3840-5
• Pfeiffer, Heinrich (2007) (German), Die Sixtinische Kapelle neu entdeckt, Stuttgart: Belser, ISBN 978-0-8109-3840-3
• Stone, Irving (2004), The Agony and the Ecstasy, London: Nal Trade, ISBN 0-451-21323-8. Previously publish by Doubleday in 1961.
• Blech, Benjamin; Doliner, Roy (2008), The Sistine Secrets: Michelangelo’s Forbidden Messages in the Heart of the Vatican, New York: HarperOne, ISBN 978-0-06-146904-6
• Efetov, Konstantin (2006), A shocking secret of the Sistine Chapel, Simferopol: CSMU Press, ISBN 966-2969-17-9
• Paoletti, John T.; Radke, Gary M. (2005). Art in Renaissance Italy, Laurence King. ISBN 1-85669-439-9

関連項目

ウィキメディア・コモンズには、システィーナ礼拝堂に関連するメディアがあります。

• ルネサンス期のイタリア絵画
• ルネサンス美術
• バチカン宮殿
• ローマ教皇
• 大塚国際美術館 – システィーナ礼拝堂内部が複製陶板画で再現されている

外部リンク

• Vatican Museums Online: Sistine Chapel A virtual detailed tour of the frescoes and panels
• High-resolution interactive virtual tour of the Sistine Chapel
• Web Gallery of Art: Visit to the Sistine Chapel in Vatican
• BBC News: Sistine Chapel Restored (1999)
• The Restoration of the Sistine Chapel: Right or Wrong?
• www.christusrex.org Capella Sistina Master Plan & Pictures

[表示] 表 話 編 歴 ローマ遺跡(一覧)

典拠管理 WorldCat VIAF: 268642532 LCCN: n96096549 GND: 4104970-6 BNF: cb139022841 (データ) NLA: 36437812

カテゴリ:

• システィーナ礼拝堂
• バチカンの世界遺産
• キリスト教建築物の世界遺産

https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixtinische_Kapelle

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com