Giacobbe Giusti, Demeter

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Demeter

A marble statue of Demeter, National Roman Museum

Giacobbe Giusti, Demeter

Demeter drives her horse-drawn chariot containing her daughter Persephone-Kore at Selinunte, Sicily, 6th century BC.

Demeter
Goddess of agriculture, harvest, fertility and sacred law. Giacobbe Giusti, Demeter
A marble statue of Demeter, National Roman Museum
Other names	Sito, Thesmophoros
Abode	Mount Olympus
Symbol	Cornucopia, wheat, torch, bread
Festivals	Thesmophoria
Personal information
Consort	Iasion, Zeus, Oceanus, Karmanor, Poseidon and Triptolemus
Children	Persephone, Despoina, Arion, Plutus, Philomelus, Eubuleus, Chrysothemis, and Amphitheus I
Parents	Cronus and Rhea
Siblings	Hestia, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, Zeus, Chiron
Roman equivalent	Ceres

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In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Demeter(/dɪˈmiːtər/; Attic: Δημήτηρ Dēmḗtēr, pronounced [dɛːmɛ́ːtɛːr]; Doric: Δαμάτηρ Dāmā́tēr) is the goddess of the harvest and agriculture, who presided over grains and the fertility of the earth. Her cult titles include Sito (Σιτώ), « she of the Grain »,^[1] as the giver of food or grain,^[2] and Thesmophoros (θεσμός, thesmos: divine order, unwritten law; φόρος, phoros: bringer, bearer), « Law-Bringer », as a mark of the civilized existence of agricultural society.^[3]

Though Demeter is often described simply as the goddess of the harvest, she presided also over the sacred law, and the cycle of life and death. She and her daughter Persephone were the central figures of the Eleusinian Mysteries that predated the Olympian pantheon. In the Linear BMycenean Greek tablets of c. 1400–1200 BC found at Pylos, the « two queens and the king » may be related with Demeter, Persephone and Poseidon.^[4][5]

Her Roman equivalent is Ceres.^[6]

Etymology

It is possible that Demeter appears in Linear A as da-ma-te on three documents (AR Zf 1 and 2, and KY Za 2), all three apparently dedicated in religious situations and all three bearing just the name (i-da-ma-te on AR Zf 1 and 2).^[7] It is unlikely that Demeter appears as da-ma-te in a Linear B (Mycenean Greek) inscription (PY En 609); the word 𐀅𐀔𐀳, da-ma-te, probably refers to « households ».^[8][9] On the other hand, 𐀯𐀵𐀡𐀴𐀛𐀊, si-to-po-ti-ni-ja, « Potnia of the Grain », is regarded as referring to her Bronze Age predecessor or to one of her epithets.^[10]

Demeter’s character as mother-goddess is identified in the second element of her name meter (μήτηρ) derived from Proto-Indo-European*méh₂tēr (mother).^[11] In antiquity, different explanations were already proffered for the first element of her name. It is possible that Da(Δᾶ),^[12] a word which corresponds to Ge (Γῆ) in Attic, is the Doric form of De (Δῆ), « earth », the old name of the chthonic earth-goddess, and that Demeter is « Mother-Earth ».^[13] This root also appears in the Linear B inscription E-ne-si-da-o-ne, « earth-shaker », as an aspect of the god Poseidon.^[14][15] However, the dā element in the name of Demeter is not so simply equated with « earth » according to John Chadwick.^[16][17]

The element De– may be connected with Deo, an epithet of Demeter^[18] probably derived from the Cretan word dea (δηά), Ionic zeia (ζειά)—variously identified with emmer, spelt, rye, or other grains by modern scholars—so that she is the Mother and the giver of food generally.^[19][20]Wanax (wa-na-ka) was her male companion (Greek: Πάρεδρος, Paredros) in Mycenaean cult.^[21] The Arcadian cult links her to the god Poseidon, who probably substituted the male companion of the Great Goddess ; Demeter may therefore be related to a Minoan Great Goddess(Cybele).^[22]

An alternative Proto-Indo-European etymology comes through Potnia and Despoina, where Des-represents a derivative of PIE *dem (house, dome), and Demeter is « mother of the house » (from PIE *dems-méh₂tēr).^[23]

Agricultural deity

Didrachme from Paros island, struck at the Cyclades and representing Demeter

A Greek fresco depicting the goddess Demeter, from Panticapaeumin the ancient Bosporan Kingdom (a client state of the Roman Empire), 1st century AD, Crimea.

According to the Athenian rhetorician Isocrates, Demeter’s greatest gifts to humankind were agriculture, particularly of cereals, and the Mysteries which give the initiate higher hopes in this life and the afterlife.^[24] These two gifts were intimately connected in Demeter’s myths and mystery cults. In Homer’s Odyssey she is the blond-haired goddess who separates the chaff from the grain.^[25] In Hesiod, prayers to Zeus-Chthonios (chthonic Zeus) and Demeter help the crops grow full and strong.^[26] Demeter’s emblem is the poppy, a bright red flower that grows among the barley.^[27]

In Hesiod‘s Theogony, Demeter is the daughter of Cronus and Rhea. At the marriage of Cadmus and Harmonia, Demeter lured Iasion away from the other revelers. They had intercourse in a ploughed furrow in Crete, and she gave birth to a son, Ploutos.^[28] Her daughter by Zeus was Persephone, Queen of the Underworld.^[29]

Festivals and cults

Main articles: Eleusinian Mysteries and Thesmophoria

Demeter’s two major festivals were sacred mysteries. Her Thesmophoria festival (11–13 October) was women-only.^[30] Her Eleusinian mysteries were open to initiates of any gender or social class. At the heart of both festivals were myths concerning Demeter as Mother and Persephone as her daughter.

Mythology

Demeter and Persephone

Giacobbe Giusti, Demeter

Demeter drives her horse-drawn chariot containing her daughter Persephone-Kore at Selinunte, Sicily, 6th century BC.

Demeter rejoiced, for her daughter was by her side.

Demeter’s virgin daughter Persephone was abducted to the underworld by Hades. Demeter searched for her ceaselessly, preoccupied with her loss and her grief. The seasons halted; living things ceased their growth, then began to die.^[31]Faced with the extinction of all life on earth, Zeussent his messenger Hermes to the underworld to bring Persephone back. Hades agreed to release her if she had eaten nothing while in his realm; but Persephone had eaten a small number of pomegranate seeds. This bound her to Hades and the underworld for certain months of every year, either the dry Mediterranean summer, when plant life is threatened by drought,^[32] or the autumn and winter.^[33] There are several variations on the basic myth. In the Homeric hymn to Demeter, Hecate assists in the search and later becomes Persephone’s underworld attendant.^[34] In another, Persephone willingly and secretly eats the pomegranate seeds, thinking to deceive Hades, but is discovered and made to stay. Contrary to popular perception, Persephone’s time in the underworld does not correspond with the unfruitful seasons of the ancient Greek calendar, nor her return to the upper world with springtime.^[35] Demeter’s descent to retrieve Persephone from the underworld is connected to the Eleusinian Mysteries.

Demeter and her daughter Persephone were usually called:^[36]

• The goddesses, often distinguished as « the older » and « the younger » in Eleusis.
• Demeters, in Rhodes and Sparta
• The thesmophoroi, « the legislators » in the Thesmophoria.
• The Great Goddesses, in Arcadia.
• The mistresses in Arcadia.^[37]

In Mycenaean Pylos, Demeter and Persephone were probably called « queens » (wa-na-ssoi).^[5]

The myth of the capture of Persephone seems to be pre-Greek. In the Greek version, Ploutos (πλούτος, wealth) represents the wealth of the corn that was stored in underground silos or ceramic jars (pithoi). Similar subterranean pithoiwere used in ancient times for funerary practices. At the beginning of the autumn, when the corn of the old crop is laid on the fields, she ascends and is reunited with her mother Demeter, for at this time the old crop and the new meet each other.^[38]

According to the personal mythology of Robert Graves,^[39] Persephone is not only the younger self of Demeter,^[40] she is in turn also one of three guises of the Triple Goddess – Kore (the youngest, the maiden, signifying green young grain), Persephone (in the middle, the nymph, signifying the ripe grain waiting to be harvested), and Hecate (the eldest of the three, the crone, the harvested grain), which to a certain extent reduces the name and role of Demeter to that of group name. Before her abduction, she is called Kore; and once taken she becomes Persephone (‘she who brings destruction’).^[41]

Demeter at Eleusis

Giacobbe Giusti, Demeter

Eleusinian trio: Persephone, Triptolemos, and Demeter, on a marble bas-relief from Eleusis, 440–430 BC

Demeter’s search for her daughter Persephone took her to the palace of Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. She assumed the form of an old woman, and asked him for shelter. He took her in, to nurse Demophon and Triptolemus, his sons by Metanira. To reward his kindness, she planned to make Demophon immortal; she secretly anointed the boy with ambrosia and laid him in the flames of the hearth, to gradually burn away his mortal self. But Metanira walked in, saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright. Demeter abandoned the attempt. Instead, she taught Triptolemus the secrets of agriculture, and he in turn taught them to any who wished to learn them. Thus, humanity learned how to plant, grow and harvest grain. The myth has several versions; some are linked to figures such as Eleusis, Rarusand Trochilus. The Demophon element may be based on an earlier folk tale.^[42]

Demeter and Poseidon

Giacobbe Giusti, Demeter

Roman copy after a Greek original from the 4th century BC, from the National Roman Museum

Demeter and Poseidon‘s names appear in the earliest scratched notes in Linear B found at Mycenae and Mycenaean Pylos; e-ne-si-da-o-ne (earth-shaker) for Poseidon, and si-to-po-ti-ni-ja, who is probably related with Demeter.^[43] Poseidon carries frequently the title wa-na-ka (wanax) in Linear Binscriptions, as king of the underworld, and his title E-ne-si-da-o-ne indicates his chthonic nature. In the cave of Amnisos (Crete) Enesidaon is related with the cult of Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth.^[44] She was related with the annual birth of the divine child.^[45] During the Bronze Age, a goddess of nature, dominated both in Minoan and Mycenean cult, and Wanax (wa-na-ka) was her male companion (paredros) in Mycenean cult.^[44]She and her paredros survived in the Eleusinian cult, where the following words were uttered :  » Mighty Potnia bore a strong son »^[46] However, there is no evidence that originally the name of Potnia was Demeter.

Tablets from Pylos record sacrificial goods destined for « the Two Queens and Poseidon » (« to the Two Queens and the King » :wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te). The « Two Queens » may be related with Demeter and Persephone, or their precursors, goddesses who were not associated with Poseidon in later periods.^[5] An exception is the myth of isolated Arcadia in southern Greece. Despoina, is daughter of Demeter and PoseidonHippios, Horse-Poseidon. These myths seem to be connected with the first Greek-speaking people who came from the north during the Bronze age. Poseidon represents the river spirit of the underworld and he appears as a horse as it often happens in northern-European folklore. He pursues the mare-Demeter and she bears one daughter who obviously originally had the form or the shape of a mare too. Demeter and Despoina were closely connected with springs and animals, related to Poseidon as a God of waters and especially with Artemis, the mistress of the animals and the goddess of, among others, the Hunt.

Demeter as mare-goddess was pursued by Poseidon, and hid from him among the horses of King Onkios, but could not conceal her divinity. In the form of a stallion, Poseidon caught and covered her. Demeter was furious (erinys) at Poseidon’s assault; in this furious form, she is known as Demeter Erinys. But she washed away her anger in the River Ladon, becoming Demeter Lousia, the « bathed Demeter ».^[47] « In her alliance with Poseidon, » Karl Kerenyi noted,^[48] « she was Earth, who bears plants and beasts, and could therefore assume the shape of an ear of grain or a mare. » She bore a daughter Despoina (Δέσποινα: the « Mistress »), whose name should not be uttered outside the Arcadian Mysteries,^[49] and a horse named Arion, with a black mane and tail.

In Arcadia, Demeter’s mare-form was worshiped into historical times. Her xoanon of Phigaleia shows how the local cult interpreted her: a Medusa type with a horse’s head with snaky hair, holding a dove and a dolphin, probably representing her power over air and water.^[50]

The second mountain, Mt. Elaios, is about 30 stades from Phigaleia, and has a cave sacred to Demeter Melaine [« Black »]… the Phigalians say, they accounted the cave sacred to Demeter, and set up a wooden image in it. The image was made in the following fashion: it was seated on a rock, and was like a woman in all respects save the head. She had the head and hair of a horse, and serpents and other beasts grew out of her head. Her chiton reached right to her feet, and she held a dolphin in one hand, a dove in the other. Why they made the xoanon like this should be clear to any intelligent man who is versed in tradition. They say they named her Black because the goddess wore black clothing. However, they cannot remember who made this xoanon or how it caught fire; but when it was destroyed the Phigalians gave no new image to the goddess and largely neglected her festivals and sacrifices, until finally barrenness fell upon the land.

— Pausanias, Description of Greece 8.42.1ff.

Titles and functions

Giacobbe Giusti, Demeter

Demeter, enthroned and extending her hand in a benediction toward the kneeling Metaneira, who offers the triune wheat (c. 340 BC)

Demeter’s epithets show her many religious functions. She was the « Corn-Mother » who blesses the harvesters. Some cults interpreted her as « Mother-Earth ». Demeter may be linked to goddess-cults of Minoan Crete, and embody aspects of a pre-Hellenic Mother Goddess.^[51] It is possible that the title « Mistress of the labyrinth », which appears in a Linear B inscription, belonged originally to Sito (« [she] of the grain »), the Great Mother Demeter and that in the Eleusinian mysteries this title was kept by her daughter Persephone (Kore or Despoina).^[52] However, there is no evidence that the name of Potnia in Eleusis was originally Demeter. Her other epithets include:

Giacobbe Giusti, Demeter

Triptolemus, Demeter and Persephone by the Triptolemos-painter, c. 470 BC, Louvre

• Aganippe(« the Mare who destroys mercifully », « Night-Mare »)
• Potnia (« mistress ») in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. Hera especially, but also Artemisand Athena, are addressed as « potnia » as well.
• Despoina (« mistress of the house »), a Greek word similar to the Mycenean potnia. This title was also applied to Persephone, Aphroditeand Hecate.
• Thesmophoros (« giver of customs » or even « legislator »), a role that links her to the even more ancient goddess Themis,^[3] derived from thesmos, the unwritten law.^[53] This title was connected with the Thesmophoria, a festival of secret women-only rituals in Athens connected with marriage customs.
• Erinys (« implacable »),^[54] with a function similar with the function of the avenging Dike(Justice), goddess of moral justice based on custom rules who represents the divine retribution,^[55] and the Erinyes, female ancient chthonic deities of vengeance and implacable agents of retribution.
• Chloe (« the green shoot »),^[56] that invokes her powers of ever-returning fertility, as does Chthonia.
• Chthonia (« in the ground »), chthonic Demeter in Sparta.^[57]
• Anesidora (« sending up gifts from the earth ») applied to Demeter in Pausanias 1.31.4, also appears inscribed on an Attic ceramic a name for Pandora on her jar. There was a temple of Demeter under this name in Phlius in Attica.^[58][59][60]
• Europa (« broad face or eyes ») at Livadeia of Boeotia. She was the nurse of Trophonios to whom a chthonic cult and oracle was dedicated.^[61]
• Kidaria in the mysteries of Pheneos in Arcadia^[62] where the priest put on the mask of Demeter kept in a secret place. It seems that the cult was connected with the underworld and with an agrarian magic.^[63]

Demeter might also be invoked in the guises of:

• Malophoros (« apple-bearer » or « sheep-bearer », Pausanias 1.44.3)
• Lusia (« bathing », Pausanias 8.25.8)
• Thermasia (« warmth », Pausanias 2.34.6)
• Achaea, the name by which she was worshipped at Athens by the Gephyraeans who had emigrated from Boeotia.^[64][65]

• Poppy goddess:

Theocritus, wrote of an earlier role of Demeter as a poppy goddess:

For the Greeks Demeter was still a poppy goddess

Bearing sheaves and poppies in both hands.— Idyll vii.157

In a clay statuette from Gazi (Heraklion Museum, Kereny 1976 fig 15), the Minoan poppy goddess wears the seed capsules, sources of nourishment and narcosis, in her diadem. « It seems probable that the Great Mother Goddess, who bore the names Rhea and Demeter, brought the poppy with her from her Cretan cult to Eleusis, and it is certain that in the Cretan cult sphere, opium was prepared from poppies » (Kerenyi 1976, p 24).

Cult places

Giacobbe Giusti, Demeter

Azes coin in India, with Demeter and Hermes.

Major cults to Demeter are known at Eleusis in Attica, Hermion (in Crete), Megara, Celeae, Lerna, Aegila, Munychia, Corinth, Delos, Priene, Akragas, Iasos, Pergamon, Selinus, Tegea, Thoricus, Dion (in Macedonia)^[66] Lykosoura, Mesembria, Enna(Sicily), and Samothrace.

An ancient Amphictyony, probably the earliest centred on the cult of Demeter at Anthele(Ἀνθήλη), which lay on the coast of Malis south of Thessaly. This was the locality of Thermopylae.^[67][68]

After the « First Sacred War », the Anthelan body was known thenceforth as the Delphic Amphictyony^[67]

Demeter of Mysia had a seven-day festival at Pellené in Arcadia.^[69] Pausanias passed the shrine to Demeter at Mysia on the road from Mycenae to Argos but all he could draw out to explain the archaic name was a myth of an eponymous Mysius who venerated Demeter.^{[citation needed]}

Genealogy

[hide]Demeter’s family tree [70]
Uranus Gaia Uranus’ genitals Cronus Rhea Zeus Hera Poseidon Hades DEMETER Hestia     a [71]      b [72] Ares Hephaestus Metis Athena [73] Leto Apollo Artemis Maia Hermes Semele Dionysus Dione     a [74]      b [75] Aphrodite

Consorts and children

1. Zeus
   1. Persephone
2. Poseidon
   1. Despoina
   2. Arion
3. Iasion
   1. Plutus
   2. Philomelus
4. Karmanor
   1. Eubuleus
   2. Chrysothemis
5. Triptolemus
   1. Amphitheus I
6. Oceanus
   1. Dmia^[76]

Portrayals

• Demeter was frequently associated with images of the harvest, including flowers, fruit, and grain. She was also sometimes pictured with her daughter Persephone.
• The Black Demeter, a sculpture made by Onatas.
• Demeter is not generally portrayed with a consort: the exception is Iasion, the youth of Crete who lay with Demeter in a thrice-ploughed field, and was sacrificed afterwards by a jealous Zeus with a thunderbolt.
• Demeter is assigned the zodiac constellation Virgo the Virgin by Marcus Manilius in his 1st century Roman work Astronomicon. In art, constellation Virgo holds Spica, a sheaf of wheat in her hand and sits beside constellation Leo the Lion.^{[citation needed]}

See also

• Greek mythology portal
• Hellenismos portal

• Eleusinian Mysteries
• 1108 Demeter, a main beltasteroid 26 km in diameter, which was discovered in 1929 by Karl Wilhelm Reinmuthat Heidelberg.
• Despoina
• Greek mythology in popular culture
• Isis and Osiris
• Poppy goddess
• Potnia
• Hades
• Law of Demeter, a software design guideline named in honor of Demeter.
• Ningishzida, an earlier Mesopotamian deity connected with vegetation and the underworld

Notes

1. Jump up^ Σιτώ. Cf. σῖτος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
2. Jump up^ Eustathius of Thessalonica, scholia on Homer, 265.
3. ^ Jump up to:^a b Themis was an ancient Greek goddess, embodiment of divine order, law. She was the organizer of the communal affairs and she evoked the social order: Finley, The World of Odysseus, rev. ed. Viking Press. (1978:78 note 82)
4. Jump up^ John Chadwick, The Mycenean World. Cambridge University Press, 1976.
5. ^ Jump up to:^a b c « Wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te, (to the two queens and the king). Wanax is best suited to Poseidon, the special divinity of Pylos. The identity of the two divinities addressed as wanassoi, is uncertain « : George Mylonas (1966) Mycenae and the Mycenean age » p.159 :Princeton University Press
6. Jump up^ Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia, The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215.
7. Jump up^ Y. Duhoux, « LA > B da-ma-te = Déméter? Sur la langue du linéaire A, » Minos 29/30 (1994-1995): 289–294.
8. Jump up^ Y. Duhoux and A. Morpurgo-Davies, Companion to Linear B, vol. 2 (2011), p. 26. But see Ventris/Chadwick,Documents in Mycenean Greek p.242: B.Dietriech (2004):The origins of the Greek religion Bristol Phoenix Press. p.172
9. Jump up^ « da-ma-te ». Deaditerranean. Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. « PY 609 En (1) ». DĀMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo. University of Oslo.
10. Jump up^ Inscription MY Oi 701. « si-to-po-ti-ni-ja ». Deaditerranean. Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. « The Linear B word si-to ». Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of Ancient languages. « MY 701 Oi (63) ». DĀMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo. University of Oslo. Cf. σῖτος, Σιτώ.
11. Jump up^ Online Etymology Dictionary « mother »
12. Jump up^ Δᾶ in Liddell and Scott.
13. Jump up^ Online Etymology Dictionary « Demeter »
14. Jump up^ Adams, John Paul, Mycenean divinities – List of handouts for California State University Classics 315. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
15. Jump up^ R. S. P. Beekes. Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 324.
16. Jump up^ Chadwick, The Mycenaean World, Cambridge University Press, 1976, p. 87) « Every Greek was aware of the maternal functions of Demeter; if her name bore the slightest resemblance to the Greek word for ‘mother’, it would inevitably have been deformed to emphasize that resemblance. […] How did it escape transformation into *Gāmātēr, a name transparent to any Greek speaker? » Compare the Latin transformation Iuppiter and Diespiter vis-a-vis *Deus pater.
17. Jump up^ Δημήτηρ. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; An Intermediate Greek–English Lexiconat the Perseus Project.
18. Jump up^ Orphic Hymn 40 to Demeter (translated by Thomas Taylor: « O universal mother Deo famed, august, the source of wealth and various names ».
19. Jump up^ Compare sanskr. yava, lit. yavai, Δά is probably derived from δέFα :Martin Nilsson, Geschichte der Griechischen Religion, vol. I (Verlag C.H.Beck) pp 461-462.
20. Jump up^ Harisson ,Prolegomena, p.272
21. Jump up^ Dietrich, p.181
22. Jump up^ Nilsson, 1967:444
23. Jump up^ Frisk, Griechisches Etymological Woerterbuch. Entry 1271
24. Jump up^ Isocrates, Panegyricus 4.28: « When Demeter came to our land, in her wandering after the rape of Kore, and, being moved to kindness towards our ancestors by services which may not be told save to her initiates, gave these two gifts, the greatest in the world — the fruits of the earth, which have enabled us to rise above the life of the beasts, and the holy rite, which inspires in those who partake of it sweeter hopes regarding both the end of life and all eternity ».
25. Jump up^ Odyssey 5.499
26. Jump up^ Hesiod Works and Days, 465
27. Jump up^ Graves, Robert (1960). Greek Gods and Heroes. Dell Laurel-Leaf.
28. Jump up^ Odyssey 5.125; Theogony 969 ff.
29. Jump up^ Hesiod, Theogony 912; Homeric Hymn to Demeter (2); Pausnias, Description of Greece8.37.9
30. Jump up^ Benko, Stephen, The virgin goddess: studies in the pagan and Christian roots of mariology,BRILL, 2004, note 111 on pp. 63 – 4, and p. 175.
31. Jump up^ Karl Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks, 1951, pp.232 – 41 and notes 784 – 98.
32. Jump up^ As in Burkert, Greek Religion (Harvard, 1985) p. 160.
33. Jump up^ As in Porphyry
34. Jump up^ Homer Hymn to Demeter, trans. Gregory Nagy, lines 50 – 60, 438 – 440.
35. Jump up^ Graf, « Demeter » in Brill’s New Pauly
36. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967) Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion pp.463, 477
37. Jump up^ Pausanias.Description of Greece 5.15.4, 5, 6
38. Jump up^ gpr Martin Nilsson, Greek Popular Religion.pp 48-50
39. Jump up^ Graves’ work on Greek myth was often criticized; see The White Goddess#Criticism and The Greek Myths.
40. Jump up^ The idea that Kore (the maiden) is not Demeter’s daughter, but Demeter’s own younger self, was discussed much earlier than Graves, in Lewis Richard Farnell (1896), The Cults of the Greek States, volume 3, p.121.
41. Jump up^ Graves, Robert. The Greek Myths. Penguin, 1990. ISBN 0-14-001026-2. 24. pp.94–95.
42. Jump up^ Nilsson (1940), p. 50: « The Demophon story in Eleusis is based on an older folk-tale motif which has nothing to do with the Eleusinian Cult. It is introduced in order to let Demeter reveal herself in her divine shape ».
43. Jump up^ George Mylonas (1966), « Mycenae and the Mycenean world « . p.159. Princeton University Press
44. ^ Jump up to:^a b Dietrich pp. 181-185
45. Jump up^ Dietrich pp. 141
46. Jump up^ Dietrich:166-167
47. Jump up^ Other ritually bathed goddesses were Argive Hera and Cybele; Aphrodite renewed her own powers bathing herself in the sea.
48. Jump up^ Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks, 1951:185.
49. Jump up^ « In Arcadia she was also a second goddess in the Mysteries of her daughter, the unnameable, who was invoked only as ‘Despoina’, the ‘Mistress' » (Karl Kerenyi, Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter(Princeton University Press) 1967:31f, instancing Pausanias, viii.37.9.
50. Jump up^ L. H. Jeffery (1976). Archaic Greece: The Greek city states c. 800-500 B.C. (Ernest Benn Limited) p 23 ISBN 0-510-03271-0
51. Jump up^ A Linear A inscription can tentatively be read as DA-MA-TE (KY Za 2), which is possibly the name of the Mother Goddess. [1]
52. Jump up^ R.Wunderlich (1975),The secret of Creta.Souvenir Press Ltd.London p 319
53. Jump up^ L. H. Jeffery (1976). Archaic Greece: The Greek city states c. 800-500 B.C. (Ernest Benn Limited) p. 42 ISBN 0-510-03271-0
54. Jump up^ Pausanias 8.25.50
55. Jump up^ C.M. Bowra (1957), The Greek Experience(1957:87, 169).
56. Jump up^ Pausanias 1.22.3.
57. Jump up^ Pausanias 3.14.5
58. Jump up^ Anesidora: inscribed against her figure on a white-ground kylix in the British Museum, B.M. 1881,0528.1, from Nola, painted by the Tarquinia painter, ca 470–460 BC (British Museum on-line catalogue entry)
59. Jump up^ Hesychius of Alexandria s.v.
60. Jump up^ Scholiast, On Theocritus ii. 12.
61. Jump up^ Pausanias.Guide to Greece.9.39.2-5
62. Jump up^ Pausanias 8.13.13
63. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967).Die Geschichte der Griechiesche Religion Vol. I pp 477-478.
64. Jump up^ Herodotus, v. 61; Plutarch Isis et Osiris p. 378, d
65. Jump up^ Smith, William (1867). « Achaea (1) ». In Rachel, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston. p. 8.
66. Jump up^ Cohen, A, Art in the Era of Alexander the Great: Paradigms of Manhood and Their Cultural Traditions, Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 213. Googlebook preview
67. ^ Jump up to:^a b L. H. Jeffery (1976) Archaic Greece: The City States c. 700–500 BC. Ernest Benn Ltd., London & Tonbridge pp. 72, 73, 78 ISBN 0-510-03271-0
68. Jump up^ The Parian marble. Entry No 5: « When Amphictyon son of Hellen became king of Thermopylae brought together those living round the temple and named them Amphictyones; [2]
69. Jump up^ Pausanias, 7. 27, 9.
70. Jump up^ This chart is based upon Hesiod‘s Theogony, unless otherwise noted.
71. Jump up^ According to Homer, Iliad 1.570–579, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312, Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74.
72. Jump up^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 927–929, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.
73. Jump up^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 886–890, of Zeus’ children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena « from his head », see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84.
74. Jump up^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 183–200, Aphrodite was born from Uranus’ severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100.
75. Jump up^ According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad 3.374, 20.105; Odyssey 8.308, 320) and Dione (Iliad5.370–71), see Gantz, pp. 99–100.
76. Jump up^ Hesychius of Alexandria, s. v.

References

• Walter Burkert (1985) Greek Religion, Harvard University Press, 1985.
• Ingri and Edgar Parin d’Aulaire, D’Aulaire’s Book of Greek Myths, 1962. An illustrated book of Greek myths retold for children.
• Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2).
• Jane Ellen Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, 1903
• Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
• Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
• Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
• Karl Kerenyi, Eleusis: archetypal image of mother and daughter, 1967.
• Karl Kerenyi, Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, 1976
• Martin P. Nilsson, Greek Popular Religion, 1940. Sacred-texts.com
• Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.
• Carl Ruck and Danny Staples, The World of Classical Myth, 1994.
• Graf, Fritz. « Demeter, » Brill’s New Pauly, Ed. Hubert Cancik and et al. Brill Reference Online. Web. 27 September 2017.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demeter

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollon sauroctone, représentant peut-être le meurtre du serpent Python, musée du Louvre

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollon et sa sœur Artémis entourant le palmier où leur mère leur a donné naissance, cratère du Peintre de Comacchio, vers 450 av. J.-C., (musée archéologique national de Madrid).

 

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo del Tevere, copia romana, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollon und Daphne, Gemälde von Antonio Pollaiuolo(um 1475)

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollon mit Kithara (Fresko, Haus des Augustus, heute im Palatin Antiquarium in Rom, ca. 20 v. Chr.)

Apollo Kitharoidos. Painted plaster, Roman artwork from the Augustan period. From the Scalae Caci on the Palatine Hill. Antiquarium of the Palatine,

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollon-Statue mit Pfeil und Bogen (ist hier abgebrochen), heute im Ashmolean Museum, Oxford

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollon citharède versant une libation, médaillon d’une coupe attique à fond blanc attribuée au Peintre de Pistoxénos, musée archéologique de Delphes

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

The Omphalos in the Museum of Delphi

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo (left) and Artemis. Brygos(potter signed), tondo of an Attic red-figure cup c. 470 BC, Musée du Louvre.

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo with his lyre. Statue from Pergamon Museum, Berlin.

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo, West Pediment Olympia. Munich, copy from original, 460 BCE at the Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Greece.

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

New York Kouros, Met. Mus. 32.11.1, marble (620–610 BC), Metropolitan Museum of Art

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo Citharoedus (« Apollo with a kithara »), Musei Capitolini, Rome

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Piraeus Apollo, archaic-style bronze, Archaeological Museum of Piraeus

 

Apollo
God of music, poetry, art, oracles, archery, plague, medicine, sun, light and knowledge Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO
Apollo Belvedere, ca. 120–140 CE
Abode	Mount Olympus
Symbol	Lyre, laurel wreath, python, raven, Swan, bow and arrows
Personal Information
Children	Asclepius, Troilus, Aristaeus, Orpheus
Parents	Zeus and Leto
Siblings	Artemis, Aeacus, Angelos, Aphrodite, Ares, Athena, Dionysus, Eileithyia, Enyo, Eris, Ersa, Hebe, Helen of Troy, Hephaestus, Heracles, Hermes, Minos, Pandia, Persephone, Perseus, Rhadamanthus, the Graces, the Horae, the Litae, the Muses, the Moirai
Roman equivalent	Apollo

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Apollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: Ἀπόλλων, Apollōn (GENἈπόλλωνος); Doric: Ἀπέλλων, Apellōn; Arcadocypriot: Ἀπείλων, Apeilōn; Aeolic: Ἄπλουν, Aploun; Latin: Apollō) is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. The ideal of the kouros (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of music, truth and prophecy, healing, the sun and light, plague, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu.^[1]

As the patron of Delphi (Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius, yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague. Amongst the god’s custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over colonists, and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the Muses (Apollon Musegetes) and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. Hermes created the lyre for him, and the instrument became a common attribute of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called paeans.

In Hellenistic times, especially during the 3rd century BCE, as Apollo Helios he became identified among Greeks with Helios, Titangod of the sun, and his sister Artemis similarly equated with Selene, Titan goddess of the moon.^[2] In Latin texts, on the other hand, Joseph Fontenrosedeclared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with Sol among the Augustan poets of the 1st century, not even in the conjurations of Aeneas and Latinus in Aeneid XII (161–215).^[3]Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd century CE.

Etymology

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo seated with lyre. Porphyryand marble, 2nd century AD. Farnese collection, Naples, Italy.

The name Apollo—unlike the related older namePaean—is generally not found in the Linear B(Mycenean Greek) texts, although there is a possible attestation in the lacunose form ]pe-rjo-[(Linear B: ]𐀟𐁊-[) on the KN E 842 tablet.^[4][5][6]

The etymology of the name is uncertain. The spelling Ἀπόλλων (pronounced [a.pól.lɔːn] in Classical Attic) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the Doric form, Apellon (Ἀπέλλων), is more archaic, as it is derived from an earlier *Ἀπέλjων. It probably is a cognate to the Doric month Apellaios (Ἀπελλαῖος),^[7] and the offerings apellaia(ἀπελλαῖα) at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai (ἀπέλλαι).^[8][9]According to some scholars, the words are derived from the Doric word apella (ἀπέλλα), which originally meant « wall, » « fence for animals » and later « assembly within the limits of the square. »^[10][11]Apella (Ἀπέλλα) is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta,^[10] corresponding to the ecclesia (ἐκκλησία). R. S. P. Beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun apellai and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *Apal^yun.^[12]

Several instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo’s name with the Greek verb ἀπόλλυμι (apollymi), « to destroy ».^[13]Plato in Cratylus connects the name with ἀπόλυσις (apolysis), « redemption », with ἀπόλουσις (apolousis), « purification », and with ἁπλοῦν ([h]aploun), « simple »,^[14] in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, Ἄπλουν, and finally with Ἀειβάλλων (aeiballon), « ever-shooting ». Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric ἀπέλλα (apella), which means « assembly », so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation σηκός (sekos), « fold », in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds.^[15] In the ancient Macedonian languageπέλλα (pella) means « stone, »^[16] and some toponyms may be derived from this word: Πέλλα (Pella,^[17] the capital of ancient Macedonia) and Πελλήνη(Pellēnē/Pallene).^[18]

A number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name,^[19] The Hittite form Apaliunas (^dx-ap-pa-li-u-na-aš) is attested in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter,^[20] perhaps related to Hurrian (and certainly the Etruscan) Aplu, a god of plague, in turn likely from AkkadianAplu Enlilmeaning simply « the son of Enlil« , a title that was given to the god Nergal, who was linked to Shamash, Babylonian god of the sun.^[21] The role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of Apollo Smintheus (« mouse Apollo ») by Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, with the purpose of sending a plague against the Greeks (the reasoning behind a god of the plague becoming a god of healing is apotropaic, meaning that the god responsible for bringing the plague must be appeased in order to remove the plague).

The Hittite testimony reflects an early form *Apeljōn, which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot Ἀπείλων with Doric Ἀπέλλων.^[22]

A Luwian etymology suggested for Apaliunasmakes Apollo « The One of Entrapment », perhaps in the sense of « Hunter ».^[23]

Greco-Roman epithets

Apollo’s chief epithet was Phoebus (/ˈfiːbəs/FEE-bəs; Φοῖβος, PhoibosGreek pronunciation: [pʰó͜i.bos]), literally « bright ».^[24] It was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans for Apollo’s role as the god of light. Like other Greek deities, he had a number of others applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in Latin literature.

Sun

• Aegletes (/əˈɡliːtiːz/ə-GLEE-teez; Αἰγλήτης, Aiglētēs), from αἴγλη, « light of the sun »^[25]
• Helius (/ˈhiːliəs/HEE-lee-əs; Ἥλιος, Helios), literally « sun »^[26]
• Lyceus (/laɪˈsiːəs/ly-SEE-əs; Λύκειος, Lykeios, from Proto-Greek *λύκη) « light ». The meaning of the epithet « Lyceus » later became associated with Apollo’s mother Leto, who was the patron goddess of Lycia (Λυκία) and who was identified with the wolf (λύκος).^[27]
• Phanaeus (/fəˈniːəs/fə-NEE-əs; Φαναῖος, Phanaios), literally « giving or bringing light »
• Phoebus (/ˈfiːbəs/FEE-bəs; Φοῖβος, Phoibos), literally « bright », his most commonly used epithet by both the Greeks and Romans
• Sol (Roman) (/sɒl/SOL), « sun » in Latin

Wolf

• Lycegenes (/laɪˈsɛdʒəniːz/ly-SEJ-ə-neez; Λυκηγενής, Lukēgenēs), literally « born of a wolf » or « born of Lycia »
• Lycoctonus (/laɪˈkɒktənəs/ly-KOK-tə-nəs; Λυκοκτόνος, Lykoktonos), from λύκος, « wolf », and κτείνειν, « to kill »

Origin and birth

Apollo’s birthplace was Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos.

• Cynthius (/ˈsɪnθiəs/SIN-thee-əs; Κύνθιος, Kunthios), literally « Cynthian »
• Cynthogenes (/sɪnˈθɒdʒɪniːz/sin-THOJ-i-neez; Κυνθογενής, Kynthogenēs), literally « born of Cynthus »
• Delius (/ˈdiːliəs/DEE-lee-əs; Δήλιος, Delios), literally « Delian »
• Didymaeus (/dɪdɪˈmiːəs/did-i-MEE-əs; Διδυμαῖος, Didymaios) from δίδυμος, « twin ») as Artemis‘ twin

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Partial view of the temple of Apollo Epikurios (healer) at Bassae in southern Greece

Place of worship

Delphi and Actium were his primary places of worship.^[28][29]

• Acraephius (/əˈkriːfiəs/ə-KREE-fee-əs; Ἀκραίφιος,^{[clarification needed]}Akraiphios, literally « Acraephian ») or Acraephiaeus(/əˌkriːfiˈiːəs/ə-KREE-fee-EE-əs; Ἀκραιφιαίος, Akraiphiaios), « Acraephian », from the Boeotiantown of Acraephia (Ἀκραιφία), reputedly founded by his son Acraepheus.^[30]
• Actiacus (/ækˈtaɪ.əkəs/ak-TY-ə-kəs; Ἄκτιακός, Aktiakos), literally « Actian », after Actium (Ἄκτιον)
• Delphinius (/dɛlˈfɪniəs/del-FIN-ee-əs; Δελφίνιος, Delphinios), literally « Delphic », after Delphi (Δελφοί). An etiology in the Homeric Hymns associated this with dolphins.
• Pythius (/ˈpɪθiəs/PITH-ee-əs; Πύθιος, Puthios, from Πυθώ, Pythō), from the region around Delphi
• Smintheus (/ˈsmɪnθjuːs/SMIN-thews; Σμινθεύς, Smintheus), « Sminthian »—that is, « of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe »^[31] near the Troad town of Hamaxitus^[32]

Temple of the Delians at Delos, dedicated to Apollo (478 BC). 19th-century pen-and-wash restoration.

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Temple of Apollo Smintheus at Çanakkale, Turkey

Healing and disease

• Acesius (/əˈsiːʒəs/ə-SEE-zhəs; Ἀκέσιος, Akesios), from ἄκεσις, « healing ». Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora.^[33]
• Acestor (/əˈsɛstər/ə-SES-tər; Ἀκέστωρ, Akestōr), literally « healer »
• Culicarius (Roman) (/ˌkjuːlɪˈkæriəs/KEW-li-KARR-ee-əs), from Latin culicārius, « of midges »
• Iatrus (/aɪˈætrəs/eye-AT-rəs; Ἰατρός, Iātros), literally « physician »^[34]
• Medicus (Roman) (/ˈmɛdɪkəs/MED-i-kəs), « physician » in Latin. A temple was dedicated to Apollo Medicus at Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona.
• Paean (/ˈpiːən/PEE-ən; Παιάν, Paiān),physician, healer ^[35]
• Parnopius (/pɑːrˈnoʊpiəs/par-NOH-pee-əs; Παρνόπιος, Parnopios), from πάρνοψ, « locust »

Founder and protector

• Agyieus (/əˈdʒaɪ.ɪjuːs/ə-JY-i-yoos; Ἀγυιεύς, Aguīeus), from ἄγυια, « street », for his role in protecting roads and homes
• Alexicacus (/əˌlɛksɪˈkeɪkəs/ə-LEK-si-KAY-kəs; Ἀλεξίκακος, Alexikakos), literally « warding off evil »
• Apotropaeus (/əˌpɒtrəˈpiːəs/ə-POT-rə-PEE-əs; Ἀποτρόπαιος, Apotropaios), from ἀποτρέπειν, « to avert »
• Archegetes (/ɑːrˈkɛdʒətiːz/ar-KEJ-ə-teez; Ἀρχηγέτης, Arkhēgetēs), literally « founder »
• Averruncus (Roman) (/ˌævəˈrʌŋkəs/AV-ə-RUNG-kəss; from Latin āverruncare), « to avert »
• Clarius (/ˈklæriəs/KLARR-ee-əs; Κλάριος, Klārios), from Doricκλάρος, « allotted lot »^[36]
• Epicurius (/ˌɛpɪˈkjʊriəs/EP-i-KEWR-ee-əs; Ἐπικούριος, Epikourios), from ἐπικουρέειν, « to aid »^[26]
• Genetor (/ˈdʒɛnɪtər/JEN-i-tər; Γενέτωρ, Genetōr), literally « ancestor »^[26]
• Nomius (/ˈnoʊmiəs/NOH-mee-əs; Νόμιος, Nomios), literally « pastoral »
• Nymphegetes (/nɪmˈfɛdʒɪtiːz/nim-FEJ-i-teez; Νυμφηγέτης, Numphēgetēs), from Νύμφη, « Nymph », and ἡγέτης, « leader », for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life

Prophecy and truth

• Coelispex (Roman) (/ˈsɛlɪspɛks/SEL-i-speks), from Latin coelum, « sky », and specere « to look at »
• Iatromantis (/aɪˌætrəˈmæntɪs/eye-AT-rə-MAN-tis; Ἰατρομάντις, Iātromantis,) from ἰατρός, « physician », and μάντις, « prophet », referring to his role as a god both of healing and of prophecy
• Leschenorius (/ˌlɛskɪˈnɔːriəs/LES-ki-NOR-ee-əs; Λεσχηνόριος, Leskhēnorios), from λεσχήνωρ, « converser »
• Loxias (/ˈlɒksiəs/LOK-see-əs; Λοξίας, Loxias), from λέγειν, « to say »,^[26] historically associated with λοξός, « ambiguous »
• Manticus (/ˈmæntɪkəs/MAN-ti-kəs; Μαντικός, Mantikos), literally « prophetic »

Music and arts

• Musagetes (/mjuːˈsædʒɪtiːz/mew-SAJ-i-teez; DoricΜουσαγέτας, Mousāgetās), from Μούσα, « Muse« , and ἡγέτης « leader »^[37]
• Musegetes (/mjuːˈsɛdʒɪtiːz/mew-SEJ-i-teez; Μουσηγέτης, Mousēgetēs), as the preceding

Archery

• Aphetor (/əˈfiːtər/ə-FEE-tər; Ἀφήτωρ, Aphētōr), from ἀφίημι, « to let loose »
• Aphetorus (/əˈfɛtərəs/ə-FET-ər-əs; Ἀφητόρος, Aphētoros), as the preceding
• Arcitenens (Roman) (/ɑːrˈtɪsɪnənz/ar-TISS-i-nənz), literally « bow-carrying »
• Argyrotoxus (/ˌɑːrdʒɪrəˈtɒksəs/AR-ji-rə-TOK-səs; Ἀργυρότοξος, Argyrotoxos), literally « with silver bow »
• Hecaërgus (/ˌhɛkiˈɜːrɡəs/HEK-ee-UR-gəs; Ἑκάεργος, Hekaergos), literally « far-shooting »
• Hecebolus (/hɪˈsɛbələs/hi-SEB-ə-ləs; Ἑκηβόλος, Hekēbolos), « far-shooting »
• Ismenius (/ɪzˈmiːniəs/iz-MEE-nee-əs; Ἰσμηνιός, Ismēnios), literally « of Ismenus », after Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, whom he struck with an arrow

Celtic epithets and cult titles

Apollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character.^[38]

• Apollo Atepomarus (« the great horseman » or « possessing a great horse »). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières (Indre). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun.^[39]
• Apollo Belenus (‘bright’ or ‘brilliant’). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, Northern Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god.^[40]
• Apollo Cunomaglus (‘hound lord’). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at Nettleton Shrub, Wiltshire. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god.^[41]
• Apollo Grannus. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo.^[42][43][44]
• Apollo Maponus. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus.
• Apollo Moritasgus (‘masses of sea water’). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians.^[45]
• Apollo Vindonnus (‘clear light’). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Châtillon-sur-Seine in present-day Burgundy. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes.^[43]
• Apollo Virotutis (‘benefactor of mankind?’). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d’Annecy (Haute-Savoie) and at Jublains (Maine-et-Loire).^[44][46]

Origins

The Omphalos in the Museum of Delphi

The cult centers of Apollo in Greece, Delphi and Delos, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to Artemis, Apollo’s twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of Pytho. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods. In archaic Greece he was the prophet, the oracular god who in older times was connected with « healing ». In classical Greece he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil.^[47]Walter Burkert^[48]discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed « a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component. »

From his eastern origin Apollo brought the art of inspection of « symbols and omina » (σημεία και τέρατα : semeia kai terata), and of the observation of the omens of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from Anatolia. The ritualism belonged to Apollo from the beginning. The Greeks created the legalism, the supervision of the orders of the gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of shining youth, the protector of music, spiritual-life, moderation and perceptible order. The improvement of the old Anatolian god, and his elevation to an intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the Greek people.^[49]

Healer and god-protector from evil

The function of Apollo as a « healer » is connected with Paean (Παιών-Παιήων), the physician of the Gods in the Iliad, who seems to come from a more primitive religion.^[50] Paeοn is probably connected with the Myceneanpa-ja-wo-ne (Linear B: 𐀞𐀊𐀍𐀚),^[51][52][53] but this is not certain. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease. Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song « paean » (παιάν). The magicians were also called « seer-doctors » (ἰατρομάντεις), and they used an ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.^[54]

In the Iliad, Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the Vedicgod of disease Rudra.^[55] He sends a plague (λοιμός) to the Achaeans. The god who sends a disease can also prevent it; therefore, when it stops, they make a purifying ceremony and offer him a hecatomb to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases, they pray and with a song they call their own god, the Paean.^[56]

Some common epithets of Apollo as a healer are « paion » (παιών, literally « healer » or « helper »)^[57]« epikourios » (ἐπικουρώ, « help »), « oulios » (οὐλή, « healed wound », also a « scar » )^[58] and « loimios » (λοιμός, « plague »). In classical times, his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and was therefore called « apotropaios » (ἀποτρέπω, « divert », « deter », « avert ») and « alexikakos » (from v.ἀλέξω + n.κακόν, « defend from evil »).^[59] In later writers, the word, usually spelled « Paean », becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing.^[60]

Homer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of apotropaic thanksgiving or triumph.^{[citation needed]} Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: to Dionysus, to Apollo Helios, to Apollo’s son Asclepius the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo’s role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won.

Dorian origin

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Apollo Victorious over the Pythonby the Florentine Pietro Francavilla(dated 1591) depicting Apollo’s first triumph, when he slew with his bow and arrows the serpent Python, which lies dead at his feet^[61] (The Walters Art Museum).

The connection with the Dorians and their initiation festival apellai is reinforced by the month Apellaios in northwest Greek calendars.^[62] The family-festival was dedicated to Apollo (Doric: Ἀπέλλων).^[63]Apellaios is the month of these rites, and Apellon is the « megistos kouros » (the great Kouros).^[64] However it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the Ancient Macedonian word « pella » (Pella), stone. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi (Omphalos).^[65][66] The « Homeric hymn » represents Apollo as a Northern intruder. His arrival must have occurred during the « Dark Ages » that followed the destruction of the Mycenaean civilization, and his conflict with Gaia (Mother Earth) was represented by the legend of his slaying her daughter the serpent Python.^[67]

The earth deity had power over the ghostly world, and it is believed that she was the deity behind the oracle.^[68] The older tales mentioned two dragons who were perhaps intentionally conflated. A female dragon named Delphyne (δελφύς, « womb »),^[69] and a male serpent Typhon (τύφειν, « to smoke »), the adversary of Zeus in the Titanomachy, who the narrators confused with Python.^[70][71] Python was the good daemon(ἀγαθὸς δαίμων) of the temple as it appears in Minoan religion,^[72] but she was represented as a dragon, as often happens in Northern European folklore as well as in the East.^[73]

Apollo and his sister Artemis can bring death with their arrows. The conception that diseases and death come from invisible shots sent by supernatural beings, or magicians is common in Germanic and Norse mythology.^[55] In Greek mythology Artemis was the leader (ἡγεμών, « hegemon ») of the nymphs, who had similar functions with the NordicElves.^[74] The « elf-shot » originally indicated disease or death attributed to the elves, but it was later attested denoting stone arrow-heads which were used by witches to harm people, and also for healing rituals.^[75]

The Vedic Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called « The Archer », and the bow is also an attribute of Shiva.^[76]Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them, and his alternative Shiba is a healer physician god.^[77]However the Indo-European component of Apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult.

Minoan origin

Ornamented golden Minoanlabrys

It seems an oracular cult existed in Delphi from the Mycenaean age.^[78] In historical times, the priests of Delphi were called Labryaden, « the double-axe men », which indicates Minoan origin. The double-axe, labrys, was the holy symbol of the Cretanlabyrinth.^[79][80] The Homeric hymn adds that Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. Apollo Delphinios or Delphidios was a sea-god especially worshiped in Crete and in the islands.^[81] Apollo’s sister Artemis, who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with Britomartis (Diktynna), the Minoan « Mistress of the animals ». In her earliest depictions she is accompanied by the « Mister of the animals », a male god of hunting who had the bow as his attribute. His original name is unknown, but it seems that he was absorbed by the more popular Apollo, who stood by the virgin « Mistress of the Animals », becoming her brother.^[74]

The old oracles in Delphi seem to be connected with a local tradition of the priesthood, and there is not clear evidence that a kind of inspiration-prophecy existed in the temple. This led some scholars to the conclusion that Pythia carried on the rituals in a consistent procedure through many centuries, according to the local tradition. In that regard, the mythical seeress Sibyl of Anatolianorigin, with her ecstatic art, looks unrelated to the oracle itself.^[82] However, the Greek tradition is referring to the existence of vapours and chewing of laurel-leaves, which seem to be confirmed by recent studies.^[83]

Plato describes the priestesses of Delphi and Dodona as frenzied women, obsessed by « mania » (μανία, « frenzy »), a Greek word he connected with mantis (μάντις, « prophet »).^[84] Frenzied women like Sibyls from whose lips the god speaks are recorded in the Near East as Mari in the second millennium BC.^[85] Although Crete had contacts with Mari from 2000 BC,^[86] there is no evidence that the ecstatic prophetic art existed during the Minoan and Mycenean ages. It is more probable that this art was introduced later from Anatolia and regenerated an existing oracular cult that was local to Delphi and dormant in several areas of Greece.^[87]

Anatolian origin

Illustration of a coin of Apollo Agyieus from Ambracia

A non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship.^[7] The name of Apollo’s mother Letohas Lydian origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of Asia Minor. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from Anatolia, which is the origin of Sibyl, and where existed some of the oldest oracular shrines. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old Assyro–Babylonian texts, and these rituals were spread into the empire of the Hittites. In a Hittite text is mentioned that the king invited a Babylonian priestess for a certain « purification ».^[49]

A similar story is mentioned by Plutarch. He writes that the CretanseerEpimenides purified Athensafter the pollution brought by the Alcmeonidae, and that the seer’s expertise in sacrifices and reform of funeral practices were of great help to Solon in his reform of the Athenian state.^[88] The story indicates that Epimenides was probably heir to the shamanic religions of Asia, and proves, together with the Homeric hymn, that Crete had a resisting religion up to historical times. It seems that these rituals were dormant in Greece, and they were reinforced when the Greeks migrated to Anatolia.

Homer pictures Apollo on the side of the Trojans, fighting against the Achaeans, during the Trojan War. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to Appaliunas, a tutelary god of Wilusa(Troy) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete.^[89] The stones found in front of the gates of Homeric Troy were the symbols of Apollo. The Greeks gave to him the name ἀγυιεύςagyieus as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil, and his symbol was a tapered stone or column.^[90] However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the full moon, all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (sibutu) indicates a Babylonianorigin.^[91]

The Late Bronze Age (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) Hittite and HurrianAplu was a god of plague, invoked during plague years. Here we have an apotropaic situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu, meaning the son of, was a title given to the god Nergal, who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun Shamash.^[21] Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god (δεινὸς θεός) who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods.^[92] In Iliad, his priest prays to Apollo Smintheus,^[93] the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats.^[31][94][95] All these functions, including the function of the healer-god Paean, who seems to have Mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of Apollo.

Oracular cult

Columns of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Greece

Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: Delos and Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apolloand Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality.^[96] Apollo’s cult was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period, and the frequency of theophoric names such as Apollodorus or Apollonios and cities named Apollonia testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at Didyma and Claruspronounced the so-called « theological oracles », in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an all-encompassing, highest deity. « In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. Julian the Apostate (359–361) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed. »^[7]

Oracular shrines

Giacobbe Giusti, APOLLO

Delos lions

Apollo had a famous oracle in Delphi, and other notable ones in Clarus and Branchidae. His oracular shrine in Abae in Phocis, where he bore the toponymic epithet Abaeus (Ἀπόλλων Ἀβαῖος, Apollon Abaios), was important enough to be consulted by Croesus.^[97] His oracular shrines include:

• Abae in Phocis.
• Bassae in the Peloponnese.
• At Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a pneuma, from which the priests drank.
• In Corinth, the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of Tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War.
• At Khyrse, in Troad, the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus.
• In Delos, there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born.
• In Delphi, the Pythia became filled with the pneuma of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton.
• In Didyma, an oracle on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian (Luwian) Sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by Branchus, son or lover of Apollo.
• In Hierapolis Bambyce, Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise De Dea Syria, the sanctuary of the Syrian Goddess contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image.^[98]
• At Patara, in Lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman.
• In Segesta in Sicily.

Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo.

• In Oropus, north of Athens, the oracle Amphiaraus, was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring.
• in Labadea, 20 miles (32 km) east of Delphi, Trophonius, another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle.

Temples of Apollo

Main articles: Ancient Greek temple and Roman temple

Many temples were dedicated to Apollo in Greece and the Greek colonies. They show the spread of the cult of Apollo and the evolution of the Greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples, especially in Crete, do not belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectanglular wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered divine, and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of Doric order. The Greeks used standard types because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be canonic, and the architects were trying to achieve this esthetic perfection.^[99]From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were built narrowly in order to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed some mathematical relations became necessary in order to keep the original forms. This probably influenced the theory of numbers of Pythagoras, who believed that behind the appearance of things there was the permanent principle of mathematics.^[100]

The Doric order dominated during the 6th and the 5th century BC but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which couldn’t be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the Ionic order, but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the Corinthian order gradually during the Hellenistic age and under Rome.

The most important temples are:

Greek temples

• Thebes, Greece: The oldest temple probably dedicated to Apollo Ismenius was built in the 9th century B.C. It seems that it was a curvilinear building. The Doric temple was built in the early 7th century B.C., but only some small parts have been found ^[101] A festival called Daphnephoria was celebrated every ninth year in honour of Apollo Ismenius (or Galaxius). The people held laurel branches (daphnai), and at the head of the procession walked a youth (chosen priest of Apollo), who was called « daphnephoros ».^[102]
• Eretria: According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, the god arrived to the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. The first temple of Apollo Daphnephoros, « Apollo, laurel-bearer », or « carrying off Daphne », is dated to 800 B.C. The temple was curvilinear hecatombedon (a hundred feet). In a smaller building were kept the bases of the laurel branches which were used for the first building. Another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century B.C., with an inner row of wooden columns over its Geometric predecessor. It was rebuilt peripteral around 510 B.C., with the stylobate measuring 21,00 x 43,00 m. The number of pteron column was 6 x 14.^[103][104]
• Dreros (Crete). The temple of Apollo Delphinios dates from the 7th century B.C., or probably from the middle of the 8th century B.C. According to the legend, Apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried Cretan priests to the port of Delphi.^[105] The dimensions of the plan are 10,70 x 24,00 m and the building was not peripteral. It contains column-bases of the Minoan type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the Doric columns.^[106]
• Gortyn (Crete). A temple of Pythian Apollo, was built in the 7th century B.C. The plan measured 19,00 x 16,70 m and it was not peripteral. The walls were solid, made from limestone, and there was single door on the east side.
• Thermon (West Greece): The Doric temple of Apollo Thermios, was built in the middle of the 7th century B.C. It was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century B.C., on which a peristyle was added. The temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 x 15. There was a single row of inner columns. It measures 12.13 x 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones.^[107]

Floor plan of the temple of Apollo, Corinth

• Corinth: A Doric temple was built in the 6th century B.C. The temple’s stylobatemeasures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. There was a double row of inner columns. The style is similar with the Temple of Alcmeonidae at Delphi.^[108] The Corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the Doric order.^[107]
• Napes (Lesbos): An Aeolic temple probably of Apollo Napaios was built in the 7th century B.C. Some special capitals with floral ornament have been found, which are called Aeolic, and it seems that they were borrowed from the East.^[109]
• Cyrene, Libya: The oldest Doric temple of Apollo was built in c. 600 B.C. The number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 x 30.05 m at the stylobate. There was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. The capitals were made from stone.^[109]
• Naukratis: An Ionic temple was built in the early 6th century B.C. Only some fragments have been found and the earlier, made from limestone, are identified among the oldest of the Ionic order.^[110]

Floor plan of the temple of Apollo, Syracuse

• Syracuse, Sicily: A Doric temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century B.C. The temple’s stylobate measures 21.47 x 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. It was the first temple in Greek west built completely out of stone. A second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch.^[111]
• Selinus (Sicily):The DoricTemple C dates from 550 B.C., and it was probably dedicated to Apollo. The temple’s stylobate measures 10.48 x 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. There was portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at Syracuse.^[112]
• Delphi: The first temple dedicated to Apollo, was built in the 7th century B.C. According to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. The « Temple of Alcmeonidae » was built in c. 513 B.C. and it is the oldest Doric temple with significant marble elements. The temple’s stylobate measures 21.65 x 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15.^[113] A fest similar with Apollo’s fest at Thebes, Greece was celebrated every nine years. A boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (dopnephoros). The maidens participated with joyful songs.^[102]
• Chios: An Ionic temple of Apollo Phanaios was built at the end of the 6th century B.C. Only some small parts have been found and the capitals had floral ornament.^[109]
• Abae (Phocis). The temple was destroyed by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in 480 B.C., and later by the Boeotians. It was rebuilt by Hadrian.^[114] The oracle was in use from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period, and shows the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion.^[115]

Floor plan of the Temple of Apollo at Bassae

• Bassae(Peloponnesus):A temple dedicated to Apollo Epikourios (« Apollo the helper »), was built in 430 B.C. and it was designed by Iktinos.It combined Doric and Ionic elements, and the earliest use of column with a Corinthian capital in the middle.^[116] The temple is of a relatively modest size, with the stylobate measuring 14.5 x 38.3 metres^[117] containing a Doricperistyle of 6 x 15 columns. The roof left a central space open to admit light and air.*Delos: A temple probably dedicated to Apollo and not peripteral, was built in the late 7th century B.C., with a plan measuring 10,00 x 15,60 m. The Doric Great temple of Apollo, was built in c. 475 B.C. The temple’s stylobate measures 13.72 x 29.78 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 13. Marble was extensively used.^[109]
• Ambracia: A Doric peripteral temple dedicated to Apollo Pythios Sotir was built in 500 B.C., and It is lying at the centre of the Greek city Arta. Only some parts have been found, and it seems that the temple was built on earlier sanctuaries dedicated to Apollo. The temple measures 20,75 x 44,00 m at the stylobate. The foundation which supported the statue of the god, still exists.^[118]

Temple of Apollo, Didyma

• Didyma(near Miletus): The gigantic Ionic temple of Apollo Didymaiosstarted around 540 B.C. The construction ceased and then it was restarted in 330 B.C. The temple is dipteral, with an outer row of 10 x 21 columns, and it measures 28.90 x 80.75 m at the stylobate.^[119]
• Clarus (near ancient Colophon): According to the legend, the famous seer Calchas, on his return from Troy, came to Clarus. He challenged the seer Mopsus, and died when he lost.^[120] The Doric temple of Apollo Clariuswas probably built in the 3rd century B.C., and it was peripteral with 6 x 11 columns. It was reconstructed at the end of the Hellenistic period, and later from the emperor Hadrian but Pausanias claims that it was still incomplete in the 2nd century B.C.^[121]
• Hamaxitus (Troad): In Iliad, Chryses the priest of Apollo, addresses the god with the epithet Smintheus (Lord of Mice), related with the god’s ancient role as bringer of the disease (plague). Recent excavations indicate that the Hellenistic temple of Apollo Smintheus was constructed at 150–125 B.C., but the symbol of the mouse god was used on coinage probably from the 4th century B.C.^[122] The temple measures 40,00 x 23,00 m at the stylobate, and the number of pteron columns was 8 x 14.^[123]

Etruscan and Roman temples

• Veii (Etruria): The temple of Apollo was built in the late 6th century B.C. and it indicates the spread of Apollo’s culture (Aplu) in Etruria. There was a prostyle porch, which is called Tuscan, and a triple cella 18,50 m wide.^[124]
• Falerii Veteres (Etruria): A temple of Apollo was built probably in the 4th-3rd century B.C. Parts of a teraccotta capital, and a teraccotta base have been found. It seems that the Etruscan columns were derived from the archaic Doric.^[124] A cult of Apollo Soranus is attested by one inscription found near Falerii.^[125]

Plan of the Temple of Apollo (Pompeii)

• Pompeii (Italy): The cult of Apollo was widespread in the region of Campania since the 6th century B.C. The temple was built in 120 B.V, but its beginnings lie in the 6th century B.C. It was reconstructed after an earthquake in A.D. 63. It demonstrates a mixing of styles which formed the basis of Roman architecture. The columns in front of the cella formed a Tuscan prostyle porch, and the cella is situated unusually far back. The peripteral colonnade of 48 Ionic columns was placed in such a way that the emphasis was given to the front side.^[126]
• Rome: The temple of Apollo Sosianus and the temple of Apollo Medicus. The first temple building dates to 431 B.C., and was dedicated to Apollo Medicus (the doctor), after a plague of 433 B.C.^[127] It was rebuilt by Gaius Sosius, probably in 34 B.C. Only three columns with Corinthian capitals exist today. It seems that the cult of Apollo had existed in this area since at least to the mid-5th century B.C.^[128]
• Rome:The temple of Apollo Palatinus was located on the Palatine hill within the sacred boundary of the city. It was dedicated by Augustus on 28 B.C. The façade of the original temple was Ionic and it was constructed from solid blocks of marble. Many famous statues by Greek masters were on display in and around the temple, including a marble statue of the god at the entrance and a statue of Apollo in the cella.^[129]
• Melite (modern Mdina, Malta): A Temple of Apollo was built in the city in the 2nd century A.D. Its remains were discovered in the 18th century, and many of its architectural fragments were dispersed among private collections or reworked into new sculptures. Parts of the temple’s podium were rediscovered in 2002.^[130]

Mythology

Main article: Greek mythology

Birth

Apollo (left) and Artemis. Brygos (potter signed), tondo of an Attic red-figure cup c. 470 BC, Musée du Louvre.

When Zeus’ wife Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on terra firma. In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island. She gave birth there and was accepted by the people, offering them her promise that her son would be always favourable toward the city. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean.^[15] This island later became sacred to Apollo.

It is also stated that Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace of amber nine yards (8.2 m) long. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and subsequently assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day (ἑβδομαγενής, hebdomagenes)^[131] of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition—or of the month Bysios—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.^[15]

Youth

Four days after his birth, Apollo killed the chthonicdragon Python, which lived in Delphi beside the Castalian Spring. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophecies. Hera sent the serpent to hunt Leto to her death across the world. To protect his mother, Apollo begged Hephaestus for a bow and arrows. After receiving them, Apollo cornered Python in the sacred cave at Delphi.^[132] Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of Gaia.

Hera then sent the giant Tityos to rape Leto. This time Apollo was aided by his sister Artemis in protecting their mother. During the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to Tartarus. There, he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of 9 acres (36,000 m²), where a pair of vultures feasted daily on his liver.

Trojan War

Marble Bust of Apollo after the Apollo Belvedere. Circa 1675

Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the Trojan War in retribution for Agamemnon‘s insult to Chryses, a priest of Apollo whose daughter Chryseis had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the Iliad.

In the Iliad, when Diomedes injured Aeneas, Apollo rescued him. First, Aphrodite tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in Troy.

Apollo aided Paris in the killing of Achilles by guiding the arrow of his bow into Achilles‘ heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles’ sacrilege in murdering Troilus, the god’s own son by Hecuba, on the very altar of the god’s own temple.

Admetus

When Zeus struck down Apollo’s son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting Hippolytusfrom the dead (transgressing Themis by stealing Hades‘s subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the Cyclopes, who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus.^[133] Apollo would have been banished to Tartarus forever for this, but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labor, due to the intercession of his mother, Leto. During this time he served as shepherd for King Admetus of Pherae in Thessaly. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus.

Apollo helped Admetus win Alcestis, the daughter of King Pelias and later convinced the Fates to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but Heracles managed to « persuade » Thanatos, the god of death, to return her to the world of the living.

Artemis and Apollo Piercing Niobe’s Children with their Arrows by Jacques-Louis David, Dallas Museum of Art

Niobe

Niobe, the queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared (Chloris, usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge.

A devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylos in Asia Minor and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.

Consorts and children

Love affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology.^[134] Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination.

Female lovers

: Apollo and Daphne

Apollo and Daphne by Bernini in the Galleria Borghese

Daphne was a nymph, daughter of the river godPeneus, who had scorned Apollo. The myth explains the connection of Apollo with δάφνη (daphnē), the laurel whose leaves his priestess employed at Delphi.^[135] In Ovid‘s Metamorphoses, Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a weapon more suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Cupid shoots a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prays to her father Peneus for help and he changes her into the laurel tree, sacred to Apollo.

Artemis Daphnaia, who had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi^[136] in Antiquity, on the slopes of Mount Cnacadion near the Spartan frontier,^[137] had her own sacred laurel trees.^[138] At Eretria the identity of an excavated 7th- and 6th-century temple to Apollo Daphnephoros, « Apollo, laurel-bearer », or « carrying off Daphne », a « place where the citizens are to take the oath », is identified in inscriptions.^[139]

Leucothea was daughter of Orchamus and sister of Clytia. She fell in love with Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea’s mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister’s trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.

Marpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. Zeus made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.

Castalia was a nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the spring at Delphi, at the base of Mt. Parnassos, which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses. In the last oracle is mentioned that the « water which could speak », has been lost for ever.

By Cyrene, Apollo had a son named Aristaeus, who became the patron god of cattle, fruit trees, hunting, husbandry and bee-keeping. He was also a culture-hero and taught humanity dairy skills, the use of nets and traps in hunting, and how to cultivate olives.

Hecuba was the wife of King Priam of Troy, and Apollo had a son with her named Troilus. An oracle prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by Achilleus.

Cassandra, was daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus’ half-sister. Apollo fell in love with Cassandra and promised her the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gave her the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her.

Coronis, was daughter of Phlegyas, King of the Lapiths. Pregnant with Asclepius, Coronis fell in love with Ischys, son of Elatus. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in other stories, Apollo himself had killed Coronis). As a result, he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the centaurChiron to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did.

In Euripides‘ play Ion, Apollo fathered Ion by Creusa, wife of Xuthus. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked Hermes to save the child and bring him to the oracle at Delphi, where he was raised by a priestess.

Acantha, was the spirit of the acanthus tree, and Apollo had one of his other liaisons with her. Upon her death, Apollo transformed her into a sun-loving herb.

According to the Biblioteca, the « library » of mythology mis-attributed to Apollodorus, he fathered the Corybantes on the Muse Thalia.^[140]

Consorts and children: extended list

1. Acacallis
   1. Amphithemis (Garamas)^[141]
   2. Naxos, eponym of the island Naxos^[142]
   3. Phylacides
   4. Phylander^[143]
2. Acantha
3. Aethusa
   1. Eleuther
4. Aganippe
   1. Chios^[144]
5. Alciope^[145]
   1. Linus (possibly)
6. Amphissa / Isse, daughter of Macareus
7. Anchiale / Acacallis
   1. Oaxes^[146]
8. Areia, daughter of Cleochus / Acacallis / Deione
   1. Miletus
9. Astycome, nymph
   1. Eumolpus (possibly)^[147]
10. Arsinoe, daughter of Leucippus
    1. Asclepius (possibly)
    2. Eriopis
11. Babylo
    1. Arabus^[148]
12. Bolina
13. Calliope, Muse
    1. Orpheus (possibly)
    2. Linus (possibly)
    3. Ialemus
14. Cassandra
15. Castalia
16. Celaeno, daughter of Hyamus / Melaina / Thyia
    1. Delphus
17. Chione / Philonis / Leuconoe
    1. Philammon
18. Chrysorthe
    1. Coronus
19. Chrysothemis
    1. Parthenos
20. Coronis
    1. Asclepius
21. Coryceia
    1. Lycorus (Lycoreus)
22. Creusa
    1. Ion
23. Cyrene
    1. Aristaeus
    2. Idmon (possibly)
    3. Autuchus^[149]
24. Danais, Cretan nymph
    1. The Curetes^[150]
25. Daphne
26. Dia, daughter of Lycaon
    1. Dryops
27. Dryope
    1. Amphissus
28. Euboea (daughter of Macareus of Locris)
    1. Agreus
29. Evadne, daughter of Poseidon
    1. Iamus
30. Gryne
31. Hecate
    1. Scylla (possibly)^[151]
32. Hecuba
    1. Troilus
    2. Hector (possibly)^[152]
33. Hestia (wooed her unsuccessfully)
34. Hypermnestra, wife of Oicles
    1. Amphiaraus (possibly)
35. Hypsipyle^[153]
36. Hyria (Thyria)
    1. Cycnus
37. Lycia, nymph or daughter of Xanthus
    1. Eicadius^[154]
    2. Patarus^[155]
38. Manto
    1. Mopsus
39. Marpessa
40. Melia
    1. Ismenus^[156]
    2. Tenerus^[157]
41. Ocyrhoe
42. Othreis
    1. Phager
43. Parnethia, nymph
    1. Cynnes^[158]
44. Parthenope
    1. Lycomedes
45. Phthia
    1. Dorus
    2. Laodocus
    3. Polypoetes
46. Prothoe^[159]
47. Procleia
    1. Tenes (possibly)
48. Psamathe
    1. Linus
49. Rhoeo
    1. Anius
50. Rhodoessa, nymph
    1. Ceos, eponym of the island Ceos^[160]
51. Rhodope
    1. Cicon, eponym of the tribe Cicones^[161]
52. Sinope
    1. Syrus
53. Stilbe
    1. Centaurus
    2. Lapithes
    3. Aineus
54. Syllis / Hyllis
    1. Zeuxippus
55. Thaleia, Muse / Rhetia, nymph
    1. The Corybantes
56. Themisto, daughter of Zabius of Hyperborea^[162]
    1. Galeotes
    2. Telmessus (?)
57. Thero
    1. Chaeron
58. Urania, Muse
    1. Linus (possibly)
59. Urea, daughter of Poseidon
    1. Ileus (Oileus?)
60. Wife of Erginus
    1. Trophonius (possibly)
61. Unknown consorts
    1. Acraepheus, eponym of the city Acraephia^[163]
    2. Chariclo (possibly)^[164]
    3. Erymanthus
    4. Marathus, eponym of Marathon^[165]
    5. Megarus^[166]
    6. Melaneus
    7. Oncius^[167][168]
    8. Phemonoe
    9. Pisus, founder of Pisa in Etruria^[169]
    10. Younger Muses
        1. Cephisso
        2. Apollonis
        3. Borysthenis

Male lovers

Apollo and Hyacinthus, 16th-century Italian engraving by Jacopo Caraglio

Hyacinth or Hyacinthus was one of Apollo’s male lovers. He was a Spartanprince, beautiful and athletic. The pair was practicing throwing the discus when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous Zephyrus and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief: out of Hyacinthus’ blood, Apollo created a flower named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection αἰαῖ, meaning alas.^[170] The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta.

Another male lover was Cyparissus, a descendant of Heracles. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the Cypress named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.

Other male lovers of Apollo include:

• Admetus^[171][172]
• Atymnius,^[173] otherwise known as a beloved of Sarpedon
• Branchus (alternately, a son of Apollo)
• Carnus
• Clarus^[174]
• Hippolytus of Sicyon (not the same as Hippolytus, the son of Theseus)^[172]
• Hymenaios^[175]
• Iapis
• Leucates, who threw himself off a rock when Apollo attempted to carry him off^[176]
• Phorbas (probably the son of Triopas)^[177]
• Potnieus^[178]

Apollo’s lyre

Apollo with his lyre. Statue from Pergamon Museum, Berlin.

Hermes was born on Mount Cyllenein Arcadia. The story is told in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes.^[179] His mother, Maia, had been secretly impregnated by Zeus. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep.

Hermes ran to Thessaly, where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near Pylos, covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a tortoise and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow’s intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first lyre.

Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo’s claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo then became a master of the lyre.

Apollo in the Oresteia

In Aeschylus‘ Oresteia trilogy, Clytemnestra kills her husband, King Agamemnon because he had sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia to proceed forward with the Trojan war, and Cassandra, a prophetess of Apollo. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon’s son, Orestes, is to kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the Erinyes or Furies (female personifications of vengeance).

Apollo and the Furies argue about whether the matricide was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo’s supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo.

Other stories

Apollo killed the Aloadae when they attempted to storm Mt. Olympus.

Callimachus sang^[180] that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the Hyperboreansduring the winter months.

Apollo turned Cephissus into a sea monster.

Another contender for the birthplace of Apollo is the Cretan islands of Paximadia.

Musical contests

Pan

Once Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo and to challenge Apollo, the god of the kithara, the mountain-god Tmolus was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a donkey.

Marsyas

Marsyas under Apollo’s punishment, İstanbul Archaeology Museum

Apollo has ominous aspects aside from his plague-bringing, death-dealing arrows: Marsyaswas a satyr who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an aulos on the ground, tossed away after being invented by Athena because it made her cheeks puffy. The contest was judged by the Muses.

After they each performed, both were deemed equal until Apollo decreed they play and sing at the same time. As Apollo played the lyre, this was easy to do. Marsyas could not do this, as he only knew how to use the flute and could not sing at the same time. Apollo was declared the winner because of this. Apollo flayed Marsyas alive in a cave near Celaenae in Phrygia for his hubris to challenge a god. He then nailed Marsyas’ shaggy skin to a nearby pine-tree. Marsyas’ blood turned into the river Marsyas.

Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the flute), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive.^[181]

Cinyras

Apollo also had a lyre-playing contest with Cinyras, his son, who committed suicide when he lost.

Head of Apollo, marble, Roman copy of a Greek original of the 4th century BCE, from the collection of Cardinal Albani

Roman Apollo

The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks.^[182]As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as Phoebus.^[183]There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings of Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus.^[184]

On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo’s first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the « Apollinare ».^[185] During the Second Punic War in 212 BCE, the Ludi Apollinares (« Apollonian Games ») were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius.^[186] In the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.^[187][182]

After the battle of Actium, which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo’s temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour.^[188] He also erected a new temple to the god on the Palatine hill.^[189] Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and Dianaformed the culmination of the Secular Games, held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.^[190]

Festivals

The chief Apollonian festivals were the Boedromia, Carneia, Carpiae, Daphnephoria, Delia, Hyacinthia, Metageitnia, Pyanepsia, Pythiaand Thargelia.

Attributes and symbols

Apollo’s most common attributes were the bow and arrow. Other attributes of his included the kithara (an advanced version of the common lyre), the plectrum and the sword. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The Pythian Games were held in Apollo’s honor every four years at Delphi. The bay laurel plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games.^[182]

Gold stater of the Seleucid king Antiochus I Soter (reigned 281–261 BCE) showing on the reverse a nude Apollo holding his key attributes: two arrows and a bow

The palm treewas also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in Delos. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, cicadas(symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows, snakes (referencing Apollo’s function as the god of prophecy), mice and griffins, mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin.^[182]

Apollo Citharoedus (« Apollo with a kithara »), Musei Capitolini, Rome

As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE.

According to Greek tradition, he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: Hittitecuneiform texts mention a Minor Asian god called Appaliunas or Apalunas in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo’s title of Lykegenes can simply be read as « born in Lycia », which effectively severs the god’s supposed link with wolves (possibly a folk etymology).

In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the Borghese Vase.

Apollo is often associated with the Golden Mean. This is the Greek ideal of moderation and a virtuethat opposes gluttony.

Apollo in the arts

The Louvre Apollo Sauroctonos, Roman copy after Praxiteles (360 BC)

Apollo is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the Renaissance. The earliest Greek word for a statue is « delight » (ἄγαλμα, agalma), and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art puts into Apollo the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought.

The naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty, balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world.

The evolution of the Greek sculpture can be observed in his depictions from the almost static formal Kouros type in early archaic period, to the representation of motion in a relative harmonious whole in late archaic period. In classical Greecethe emphasis is not given to the illusive imaginative reality represented by the ideal forms, but to the analogies and the interaction of the members in the whole, a method created by Polykleitos. Finally Praxiteles seems to be released from any art and religious conformities, and his masterpieces are a mixture of naturalismwith stylization.

Art and Greek philosophy

The evolution of the Greek art seems to go parallel with the Greek philosophical conceptions, which changed from the natural-philosophy of Thales to the metaphysical theory of Pythagoras. Thales searched for a simple material-form directly perceptible by the senses, behind the appearances of things, and his theory is also related to the older animism. This was paralleled in sculpture by the absolute representation of vigorous life, through unnaturally simplified forms.^[191]

Pythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation.^[100] The forms on earth, are imperfect imitations (εἰκόνες, eikones, « images ») of the celestial world of numbers. His ideas had a great influence on post-Archaic art. The Greek architects and sculptors were always trying to find the mathematical relation, that would lead to the esthetic perfection.^[192] (canon).

In classical Greece, Anaxagoras asserted that a divine reason (mind) gave order to the seeds of the universe, and Plato extended the Greek belief of ideal forms to his metaphysical theory of forms(ideai, « ideas »). The forms on earth are imperfect duplicates of the intellectual celestial ideas. The Greek words oida (οἶδα, « (I) know ») and eidos(εἶδος, « species »), a thing seen, have the same root as the word idea (ἰδέα), a thing ἰδείν to see.^[193][194] indicating how the Greek mind moved from the gift of the senses, to the principles beyond the senses. The artists in Plato’s time moved away from his theories and art tends to be a mixture of naturalism with stylization. The Greek sculptors considered the senses more important, and the proportions were used to unite the sensible with the intellectual.

Archaic sculpture

Sacred Gate Kouros, marble (610–600 BC), Kerameikos Archaeological Museum in Athens

Kouros (male youth) is the modern term given to those representations of standing male youths which first appear in the archaic period in Greece. This type served certain religious needs and was first proposed for what was previously thought to be depictions of Apollo.^[195][196] The first statues are certainly still and formal. The formality of their stance seems to be related with the Egyptian precedent, but it was accepted for a good reason. The sculptors had a clear idea of what a young man is, and embodied the archaic smile of good manners, the firm and springy step, the balance of the body, dignity, and youthful happiness. When they tried to depict the most abiding qualities of men, it was because men had common roots with the unchanging gods.^[197] The adoption of a standard recognizable type for a long time, is probably because nature gives preference in survival of a type which has long be adopted by the climatic conditions, and also due to the general Greek belief that nature expresses itself in ideal formsthat can be imagined and represented.^[192] These forms expressed immortality. Apollo was the immortal god of ideal balance and order. His shrine in Delphi, that he shared in winter with Dionysius had the inscriptions: γνῶθι σεαυτόν(gnōthi seautón= »know thyself ») and μηδὲν ἄγαν(mēdén ágan, « nothing in excess »), and ἐγγύα πάρα δ’ἄτη (eggýa pára d’atē, « make a pledge and mischief is nigh »).^[198]

New York Kouros, Met. Mus. 32.11.1, marble (620–610 BC), Metropolitan Museum of Art

In the first large-scale depictions during the early archaic period (640–580 BC), the artists tried to draw one’s attention to look into the interior of the face and the body which were not represented as lifeless masses, but as being full of life. The Greeks maintained, until late in their civilization, an almost animistic idea that the statues are in some sense alive. This embodies the belief that the image was somehow the god or man himself.^[199] A fine example is the statue of the Sacred Gate Kouroswhich was found at the cemetery of Dipylon in Athens (Dipylon Kouros). The statue is the « thing in itself », and his slender face with the deep eyes express an intellectual eternity. According to the Greek tradition the Dipylon master was named Daedalus, and in his statues the limbs were freed from the body, giving the impression that the statues could move. It is considered that he created also the New York kouros, which is the oldest fully preserved statue of Kouros type, and seems to be the incarnation of the god himself.^[191]

Piraeus Apollo, archaic-style bronze, Archaeological Museum of Piraeus

The animistic idea as the representation of the imaginative reality, is sanctified in the Homeric poems and in Greek myths, in stories of the god Hephaestus(Phaistos) and the mythic Daedalus (the builder of the labyrinth) that made images which moved of their own accord. This kind of art goes back to the Minoan period, when its main theme was the representation of motion in a specific moment.^[200] These free-standing statues were usually marble, but also the form rendered in limestone, bronze, ivory and terracotta.

The earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo, may be two figures from the Ionicsanctuary on the island of Delos. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of Apollo Ptoios, Boeotiaalone.^[201] The last stage in the development of the Kouros type is the late archaic period (520–485 BC), in which the Greek sculpture attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used to create a relative harmonious whole. Ranking from the very few bronzes survived to us is the masterpiece bronze Piraeus Apollo. It was found in Piraeus, the harbour of Athens. The statue originally held the bow in its left hand, and a cup of pouring libation in its right hand. It probably comes from north-eastern Peloponnesus. The emphasis is given in anatomy, and it is one of the first attempts to represent a kind of motion, and beauty relative to proportions, which appear mostly in post-Archaic art. The statue throws some light on an artistic centre which, with an independently developed harder, simpler and heavier style, restricts Ionian influence in Athens. Finally, this is the germ from which the art of Polykleitos was to grow two or three generations later.^[202]

Classical sculpture

Apollo of the « Mantoua type », marble Roman copy after a 5th-century BCE Greek original attributed to Polykleitos, Musée du Louvre

At the beginning of the Classical period, it was considered that beauty in visible things as in everything else, consisted of symmetry and proportions. The artists tried also to represent motion in a specific moment (Myron), which may be considered as the reappearance of the dormant Minoanelement.^[200] Anatomy and geometry are fused in one, and each does something to the other. The Greek sculptors tried to clarify it by looking for mathematical proportions, just as they sought some reality behind appearances. Polykleitos in his Canon wrote that beauty consists in the proportion not of the elements (materials), but of the parts, that is the interrelation of parts with one another and with the whole. It seems that he was influenced by the theories of Pythagoras.^[203] The famous Apollo of Mantua and its variants are early forms of the Apollo Citharoedus statue type, in which the god holds the cithara in his left arm. The type is represented by neo-Attic Imperial Roman copies of the late 1st or early 2nd century, modelled upon a supposed Greek bronze original made in the second quarter of the 5th century BCE, in a style similar to works of Polykleitos but more archaic. The Apollo held the cythara against his extended left arm, of which in the Louvre example, a fragment of one twisting scrolling horn upright remains against his biceps.

Though the proportions were always important in Greek art, the appeal of the Greek sculptures eludes any explanation by proportion alone. The statues of Apollo were thought to incarnate his living presence, and these representations of illusive imaginative reality had deep roots in the Minoan period, and in the beliefs of the first Greekspeaking people who entered the region during the bronze-age. Just as the Greeks saw the mountains, forests, sea and rivers as inhabited by concrete beings, so nature in all of its manifestations possesses clear form, and the form of a work of art. Spiritual life is incorporated in matter, when it is given artistic form. Just as in the arts the Greeks sought some reality behind appearances, so in mathematics they sought permanent principles which could be applied wherever the conditions were the same. Artists and sculptors tried to find this ideal order in relation with mathematics, but they believed that this ideal order revealed itself not so much to the dispassionate intellect, as to the whole sentient self.^[191] Things as we see them, and as they really are, are one, that each stresses the nature of the other in a single unity.

Pediments and friezes

Apollo, West Pediment Olympia. Munich, copy from original, 460 BCE at the Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Greece.

In the archaic pediments and friezes of the temples, the artists had a problem to fit a group of figures into an isosceles triangle with acute angles at the base.

The Siphnian Treasury in Delphi was one of the first Greek buildings utilizing the solution to put the dominating form in the middle, and to complete the descending scale of height with other figures sitting or kneeling. The pediment shows the story of Heracles stealing Apollo’s tripod that was strongly associated with his oracular inspiration. Their two figures hold the centre. In the pediment of the temple of Zeus in Olympia, the single figure of Apollo is dominating the scene.^[197]

Head of the Apollo Belvedere

These representations rely on presenting scenes directly to the eye for their own visible sake. They care for the schematic arrangements of bodies in space, but only as parts in a larger whole. While each scene has its own character and completeness it must fit into the general sequence to which it belongs. In these archaic pediments the sculptors use empty intervals, to suggest a passage to and from a busy battlefield. The artists seem to have been dominated by geometrical pattern and order, and this was improved when classical art brought a greater freedom and economy.^[197]

Hellenistic Greece-Rome

Apollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a kithara (as Apollo Citharoedus) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the Apollo Lykeios and Apollo Sauroctonostypes). The Apollo Belvedere is a marblesculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of Classical Antiquity for Europeans, from the Renaissance through the 19th century. The marble is a Hellenistic or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor Leochares, made between 350 and 325 BCE.

The life-size so-called « Adonis » found in 1780 on the site of a villa suburbana near the Via Labicanain the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from El Djem, Roman Thysdrus, he is identifiable as Apollo Helios by his effulgent halo, though now even a god’s divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire.

Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse.^[204]The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict Alexander the Great.^[205] Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed.

Modern reception

Apollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a « Hymn of Apollo » (1820), and the god’s instruction of the Muses formed the subject of Igor Stravinsky‘s Apollon musagète (1927–1928). In 1978, the Canadian band Rush released an album with songs « Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom »/ »Dionysus: Bringer of Love ».

In discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the Apollonian and Dionysian impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. Friedrich Nietzscheargued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. Carl Jung‘s Apollo archetyperepresents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance.

Charles Handy, in Gods of Management (1978) uses Greek gods as a metaphor to portray various types of organisational culture. Apollo represents a ‘role’ culture where order, reason and bureaucracy prevail.^[206]

In spaceflight, the NASA program for landing astronauts on the Moon was named Apollo.

Genealogy

Left: Surya on a quadriga, Bodh Gaya relief, India. Right: Classical example of Phoebus Apollo on quadriga.

The Overthrow of Apollo and the Pagan Gods, watercolour from William Blake’s illustrations of On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity (1809)

[hide]Apollo’s family tree [207]
Uranus Gaia Uranus’ genitals Coeus Phoebe Cronus Rhea Leto Zeus Hera Poseidon Hades Demeter Hestia APOLLO Artemis     a [208]      b [209] Ares Hephaestus Metis Athena[210] Maia Hermes Semele Dionysus Dione     a [211]      b [212] Aphrodite

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Notes

1. Jump up^ Krauskopf, I. 2006. « The Grave and Beyond. » The Religion of the Etruscans. edited by N. de Grummond and E. Simon. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. vii, p. 73-75.
2. Jump up^ For the iconography of the Alexander–Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, 1963. « Helios », in Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 2, pp. 117–23; cf. Yalouris 1980, no. 42.
3. Jump up^ Joseph Fontenrose, « Apollo and Sol in the Latin poets of the first century BC », Transactions of the American Philological Association 30(1939), pp 439–55; « Apollo and the Sun-God in Ovid », American Journal of Philology 61 (1940) pp 429–44; and « Apollo and Sol in the Oaths of Aeneas and Latinus » Classical Philology 38.2 (April 1943), pp. 137–138.
4. Jump up^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 118.
5. Jump up^ Herda, Alexander (2008). « Apollon Delphinios – Apollon Didymeus: Zwei Gesichter eines milesischen Gottes und ihr Bezug zur Kolonisation Milets in archaischer Zeit ». Internationale Archäologie (in German). Arbeitsgemeinschaft, Symposium, Tagung, Kongress. Band 11: Kult(ur)kontakte. Apollon in Milet/Didyma, Histria, Myus, Naukratis und auf Zypern. Akten des Table Ronde in Mainz vom 11.–12. März 2004: 16. ISBN 978-3-89646-441-5.
6. Jump up^ « KN 842 E », DĀMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo, University of Oslo. Department of Philosophy, Classics, History of Art and Ideas.
7. ^ Jump up to:^a b c van der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; van der Horst, Pieter Willem (1999). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Brill. p. 73. ISBN 978-90-04-11119-6.
8. Jump up^ « The young men became grown-up kouroi, and Apollon was the « megistos kouros » (The Great Kouros) : Jane Ellen Harrison (2010): Themis: A study to the Social origins of Greek Religion Cambridge University Press. pp. 439–441, ISBN 1108009492
9. Jump up^ Visible Religion. Volume IV–V. Approaches to Iconology. Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1985 p. 143 [1]
10. ^ Jump up to:^a b The word usually appears in plural: Hesychius: ἀπέλλαι (apellai), σηκοί (« folds »), ἐκκλησίαι (« assemblies »), ἀρχαιρεσίαι(« elections »): Nilsson, Vol. I, p. 556
11. Jump up^ Doric Greek verb: ἀπέλλάζειν (« to assemble »), and the festival ἀπέλλαι (apellai), which surely belonged to Apollo. Nilsson, Vol I, p. 556.
12. Jump up^ Beekes, 2009, pp. 115 and 118–119.
13. Jump up^ Mike Campbell. « Meaning, Origin and History of the Name Apollo ». Behind the Name. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
14. Jump up^ The ἁπλοῦν suggestion is repeated by Plutarch in Moralia in the sense of « unity« .
15. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Freese 1911, p. 184.
16. Jump up^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 1168.
17. Jump up^ Πέλλα / Pella, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon
18. Jump up^ Nilsson Vol I, p.558
19. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson, Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion, vol. I (C. H. Beck), 1955:555–564.
20. Jump up^ The reading of Apaliunas and the possible identification with Apollo is due to Emil Forrer(1931). It was doubted by Kretschmer, GlottaXXIV, p. 250. Martin Nilsson (1967), Vol I, p. 559
21. ^ Jump up to:^a b de Grummond, Nancy Thomson (2006) Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend. (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology); Mackenzie, Donald A. (2005) Myths of Babylonia and Assyria (Gutenberg)
22. Jump up^ Angel, John L.; Mellink, Machteld Johanna (1986). Troy and the Trojan War: A Symposium Held at Bryn Mawr College, October 1984. Bryn Mawr Commentaries. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-929524-59-7.
23. Jump up^ Immerwahr, Sara Anderson; Chapin, Anne Proctor (2004). Charis: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr. Amer School of Classical. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-87661-533-1.
24. Jump up^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 1582.
25. Jump up^ Apollonius of Rhodes, iv. 1730; Pseudo-Apollodorus, Biblioteca, i. 9. § 26
26. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Álvaro Jr., Santos, Allan. Simbolismo divino. Allan Álvaro, Jr., Santos.
27. Jump up^ Aelian, On the Nature of Animals 4. 4 (A.F. Scholfield, tr.)
28. Jump up^ Ovid, Metamorphoses xiii. 715
29. Jump up^ Strabo, x. p. 451
30. Jump up^ Wiliam Smith. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Acraepheus
31. ^ Jump up to:^a b Σμινθεύς in Liddell and Scott
32. Jump up^ The epithet « Smintheus » has historically been confused with σμίνθος, « mouse », in association with Apollo’s role as a god of disease
33. Jump up^ Smith, William (1873). « Acesius ». Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. London. At the Perseus Project.
34. Jump up^ Euripides, Andromache 901
35. Jump up^ παιών
36. Jump up^ κλάρος
37. Jump up^ Μουσαγέτας in Liddell and Scott.
38. Jump up^ Miranda J. Green, Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend, Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997
39. Jump up^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII, 1863–1986; A. Ross, Pagan Celtic Britain, 1967; M.J. Green, The Gods of the Celts, 1986, London
40. Jump up^ J. Zwicker, Fontes Historiae Religionis Celticae, 1934–36, Berlin; Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum V, XI, XII, XIII; J. Gourcest, « Le culte de Belenos en Provence occidentale et en Gaule », Ogam 6.6 (1954:257–262); E. Thevonot, « Le cheval sacre dans la Gaule de l’Est », Revue archeologique de l’Est et du Centre-Est (vol 2), 1951; [], « Temoignages du culte de l’Apollon gaulois dans l’Helvetie romaine », Revue celtique(vol 51), 1934.
41. Jump up^ W.J. Wedlake, The Excavation of the Shrine of Apollo at Nettleton, Wiltshire, 1956–1971, Society of Antiquaries of London, 1982.
42. Jump up^ M. Szabo, The Celtic Heritage in Hungary(Budapest 1971)
43. ^ Jump up to:^a b Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule, E. Thevonat, 1968, Paris
44. ^ Jump up to:^a b La religion des Celtes, J. de Vries, 1963, Paris
45. Jump up^ J. Le Gall, Alesia, archeologie et histoire(Paris 1963).
46. Jump up^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII
47. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967) ».Die Geschicte der Giechischen Religion.Vol I ».C.F.Beck Verlag.Munchen. p 529
48. Jump up^ Burkert, Walter. Greek Religion, 1985:144.
49. ^ Jump up to:^a b Martin Nilsson. Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion Vol I, pp. 563–564
50. Jump up^ Paieon (Παιήων) puts pain-relieving medicines on the wounds of Pluton and Ares ( Ilias E401). This art is related with Egypt: (Odyssey D232): M. Nilsson Vol I, p. 543
51. Jump up^ Schofield, Louise (2007). The Mycenaeans. The British Museum Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-89236-867-9.
52. Jump up^ « KN V 52+ ». Deaditerranean: Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B.
53. Jump up^ Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 89. ISBN 0-521-29037-6. At Google Books.
54. Jump up^ Ἐπὶ καταπαύσει λοιμῶν καὶ νόσων ᾄδόμενος. Which is sung to stop the plagues and the diseases. Proklos: Chrestom from Photios Bibl. code. 239, p. 321: Martin Nilsson. Die Geschicthe der Griechischen religion. Vol I, p. 543
55. ^ Jump up to:^a b « The conception that the diseases come from invisible shots sent by magicians or supernatural beings is common in primitive people and also in European folklore. In North-Europe they speak of the « Elf-shots« . In Sweden where the Lapps were called magicians, they speak of the « Lappen-shots ». Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 541
56. Jump up^ Ilias A 314. Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 543
57. Jump up^ [2]: Harper’s Dictionary of classical antiquity
58. Jump up^ Perseus.tufts.edu
59. Jump up^ Pausanias VIII 41, 8-IV 34, 7-Sittig. Nom P. 48. f-Aristoph. Vesp. V. 61-Paus. I 3, 4. Martin Nilsson (1967) Vol I, p. 540, 544
60. Jump up^ Graf, Fritz (2008). Apollo. Taylor & Francis. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-203-58171-1.
61. Jump up^ « Apollo Victorious over the Python ». The Walters Art Museum. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
62. Jump up^ Graf, Apollo, pp. 104–113; Burkert also notes in this context Archilochus Fr. 94.
63. Jump up^ Walter Burkert (1985) Greek Religion. Harvard University Press. p. 255
64. Jump up^ Jane Ellen Harrison (2010): Themis: A study to the Social origins of Greek Religion. Cambridge University Press. p. 441. ISBN 1108009492
65. Jump up^ Compare: Baetylus. In Semitic: sacred stone
66. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I. p. 556
67. Jump up^ Herbert W. Park (1956). The delphic oracle. Vol.I, p. 3
68. Jump up^ Lewis Farnel(1909)The cult of the city states. Clarendon Press. VIII. pp. 8–10
69. Jump up^ δελφύς
70. Jump up^ « Many pictures show the serpent Python living in amity with Apollo and guarding the Omphalos. Karl Kerenyi (1951). ed. 1980: The gods of the Greeks, pp. 36–37
71. Jump up^ « In a Pompeian fresco Python is lying peacefully on the ground and the priests with the sacred double axe in their hand bring the bull (bouphronion). Jane. H. Harisson (1912): Themis. A study of the social origins of the Greek religion. Cambridge University Press. pp. 423–424
72. Jump up^ In Minoan religion the serpent is the protector of the household (underground stored corn). Also in Greek religion, « snake of the house » (οἰκουρὸς ὄφις) in the temple of Athena at Acropolis, etc., and in Greek folklore. Martin Nilsson, Vol.I, pp. 213–214
73. Jump up^ Nordig sagas. Hittite myth of Illuyankas. Also in the Bible: Leviathan. W. Porzig (1930). Illuyankas and Typhon. Kleinasiatische Forschung, pp. 379–386
74. ^ Jump up to:^a b . Martin Nilsson (1967), Vol I, pp. 499–500
75. Jump up^ Hall, Alaric. 2005. ‘Getting Shot of Elves: Healing, Witchcraft and Fairies in the Scottish Witchcraft Trials’, [3], 116 (2005), pp. 19–36.
76. Jump up^ For Śarva as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910.
77. Jump up^ For association between Rudra and disease, with Rigvedic references, see: Bhandarkar, p. 146.
78. Jump up^ Odyssey 8.80
79. Jump up^ Huxley (1975). Cretan Paewones. Roman and Byzantine studies, pp. 129–134
80. Jump up^ H.G.Wunderlich. The secret of Creta Souvenir Press Ltd. London p. 319
81. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 554 A4
82. Jump up^ Hugh Bowden (2005). Classical Athens and the Delphic oracle, pp. 17–18
83. Jump up^ William J. Broad (2006). The oracle: the lost secrets and hidden message of ancient Delphi. Penguin Group USA. p. 32. ISBN 1-59420-081-5.
84. Jump up^ μάντις in Liddell and Scott.
85. Jump up^ Walter Burkert (1985).The Greek religion. p. 116
86. Jump up^ F.Schachermeyer (1964). p. 128
87. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, pp. 543–545
88. Jump up^ Plutarch, Life of Solon, 12; Aristotle, Ath. Pol. 1.
89. Jump up^ Paul Kretschmer (1936). Glotta XXIV p. 250. Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 559.
90. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson, Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion. vol. I (C. H. Beck), 1955:563f.
91. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 561.
92. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I. pp. 559–560.
93. Jump up^ « You Apollo Smintheus, let my tears become your arrows against the Danaans, for revenge ». Iliad 1.33 (A 33).
94. Jump up^ An ancient aetiological myth connects sminthos with mouse and suggests Cretan origin. Apollo is the mouse-god (Strabo 13.1.48).
95. Jump up^ « Sminthia » in several areas of Greece. In Rhodes (Lindos) they belong to Apollo and Dionysos who have destroyed the rats that were swallowing the grapes ». Martin Nilsson (1967). pp. 534–535.
96. Jump up^ Burkert 1985:143.
97. Jump up^ Herodotus, 1.46.
98. Jump up^ Lucian (attrib.), De Dea Syria 35–37.
99. Jump up^ To know what a thing is, we must know the look of it »: Rhys Carpenter: The esthetic basis of Greek art. Indiana University Press. p. 108
100. ^ Jump up to:^a b C. M. Bowra (1957). The Greek experience, p. 166.
101. Jump up^ William Dinsmoor (1950),The architecture of Ancient Greece, p. 218, ISBN 0-8196-0283-3
102. ^ Jump up to:^a b William Smith. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875. p. 384
103. Jump up^ Hellenic Ministry of culture, Temple of Apollo Daphnephoros Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
104. Jump up^ Rufus B. Richardson, « A Temple in Eretria » The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts, 10.3 (July – September 1895:326–337)
105. Jump up^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 529
106. Jump up^ Robertson pp. 56 and 323
107. ^ Jump up to:^a b Spivey, p. 112
108. Jump up^ Robertson p. 87
109. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d D.S Robertson(1945):A handbook of Greek and Roman architecture, Cambridge University Press pp. 324-329
110. Jump up^ Robertson, p. 98
111. Jump up^ Mertens 2006, pp. 104–109.
112. Jump up^ IG XIV 269
113. Jump up^ Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Ancient-Greece.org
114. Jump up^ Smith, William (1850). New classical dictionary of biography, mythology, and geography. p. 1. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
115. Jump up^ See reports of the German Archaeological Institute in Archaeological Reports for 2008/9 43-45
116. Jump up^ Hellenic Ministry of Culture: The Temple of Epicurean Apollo.
117. Jump up^ Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae, World Heritage Site.
118. Jump up^ Ministry of culture. Temple of Apollo Pythios Sotir Archived 2 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
119. Jump up^ Peter Schneider: Neue Funde vom archaischen Apollontempel in Didyma. In: Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner (ed.): Säule und Gebälk. Zu Struktur und Wandlungsprozeß griechisch-römischer Architektur. Bauforschungskolloquium in Berlin vom 16.-18. Juni 1994. Diskussionen zur Archäologischen Bauforschung
120. Jump up^ perseus tufts Clarus
121. Jump up^ Prophecy centre of Apollo Clarius
122. Jump up^ Bresson (2007) 154-5, citing the excavations reports of Özgünel (2001).
123. Jump up^ Robertson p.333
124. ^ Jump up to:^a b Robertson pp. 200-201
125. Jump up^ Perseus tufts: Falerii Veteres
126. Jump up^ Davidson CSA :Temple of Apollo, PompeiiArchived 6 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
127. Jump up^ Livy 4.25
128. Jump up^ Livy 34.43
129. Jump up^ A topographical dictionary of Ancient Rome
130. Jump up^ Testa, Michael (19 March 2002). « New find at Mdina most important so far in old capital ». Times of Malta. Archived from the original on 13 April 2016.
131. Jump up^ ἑβδομαγενής in Liddell and Scott.
132. Jump up^ Children of the Gods by Kenneth McLeish, page 32.
133. Jump up^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliothke iii. 10.4.
134. Jump up^ « The love-stories themselves were not told until later. » Karl Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks 1951:140.
135. Jump up^ The ancient Daphne episode is noted in late narratives, notably in Ovid, Metamorphoses, in Hyginus, Fabulae, 203 and by the fourth-century-CE teacher of rhetoric and Christian convert, Libanius, in Narrationes.
136. Jump up^ G. Shipley, « The Extent of Spartan Territory in the Late Classical and Hellenistic Periods », The Annual of the British School at Athens, 2000.
137. Jump up^ Pausanias, 3.24.8 (on-line text); Lilius Gregorius Gyraldus, Historiae Deorum Gentilium, Basel, 1548, Syntagma 10, is noted in this connection in Benjamin Hederich,Gründliches mythologisches Lexikon, 1770
138. Jump up^ Karl Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks, 1951:141
139. Jump up^ Rufus B. Richardson, « A Temple in Eretria » The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts, 10.3 (July – September 1895:326–337); Paul Auberson, Eretria. Fouilles et Recherches I, Temple d’Apollon Daphnéphoros, Architecture (Bern, 1968). See also Plutarch, Pythian Oracle, 16.
140. Jump up^ Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, 1.3.4. Other ancient sources, however, gave the Corybantes different parents; see Sir James Frazer‘s noteon the passage in the Bibliotheca.
141. Jump up^ Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 1491 ff
142. Jump up^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 1491 ff
143. Jump up^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 10. 16. 5
144. Jump up^ Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers, 7. 1
145. Jump up^ Photius, Lexicon s. v. Linos
146. Jump up^ Servius on Virgil‘s Eclogue 1, 65
147. Jump up^ Photius, Lexicon, s. v. Eumolpidai
148. Jump up^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, 7. 56 – 57 p. 196
149. Jump up^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 2. 498
150. Jump up^ Tzetzes on Lycophron, 77
151. Jump up^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica4.828, referring to « Hesiod« , Megalai Ehoiai fr.
152. Jump up^ Tzetzes on Lycophron, 266
153. Jump up^ Arnobius, Adversus Nationes, 4. 26; not the same as Hypsipyle of Lemnos
154. Jump up^ Servius on Aeneid, 3. 332
155. Jump up^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Patara
156. Jump up^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 9.10.6.
157. Jump up^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 9.10.6, 26.1.
158. Jump up^ Photius, Lexicon, s. v. Kynneios
159. Jump up^ Arnobius, Adversus Nationes, 4. 26
160. Jump up^ Etymologicum Magnum 507, 54, under Keios
161. Jump up^ Etymologicum Magnum 513, 37, under Kikones
162. Jump up^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. Galeōtai
163. Jump up^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. Akraiphia
164. Jump up^ Scholia on Pindar, Pythian Ode 4. 181
165. Jump up^ Suda s. v. Marathōn
166. Jump up^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v Megara
167. Jump up^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 8. 25. 4
168. Jump up^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Ogkeion
169. Jump up^ Servius on Aeneid, 10. 179
170. Jump up^ αἰαῖ, αἴ in Liddell and Scott.
171. Jump up^ Callimachus, Hymn to Apollo, 49.
172. ^ Jump up to:^a b Plutarch, Life of Numa, 4. 5.
173. Jump up^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca, 11. 258; 19. 181.
174. Jump up^ Philostratus, Letters, 5. 3.
175. Jump up^ Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses, 23.
176. Jump up^ Servius on Aeneid, 3. 279.
177. Jump up^ Plutarch, Life of Numa, 4. 5, cf. also Hyginus, Poetical Astronomy, 2. 14.
178. Jump up^ Clement of Rome, Homilia, 5. 15.
179. Jump up^ « English translation of the Homeric Hymn to Hermes ». Perseus. Retrieved 28 January2015.
180. Jump up^ Callimachus, Hymn to Apollo2.5
181. Jump up^ Man Myth and Magic by Richard Cavendish
182. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Freese 1911, p. 185.
183. Jump up^ « Koronis ». Theoi. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
184. Jump up^ Livy 1.56.
185. Jump up^ Livy 3.63.7, 4.25.3.
186. Jump up^ Livy 25.12.
187. Jump up^ J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz (1979). Continuity and Change in Roman Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 82–85. ISBN 0-19-814822-4.
188. Jump up^ Suetonius, Augustus 18.2; Cassius Dio51.1.1–3.
189. Jump up^ Cassius Dio 53.1.3.
190. Jump up^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 5050, translated by Beard, Mary; North, John; Price, Simon (1998). Religions of Rome: Volume 2: A Sourcebook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 5.7b. ISBN 0-521-45015-2.
191. ^ Jump up to:^a b c E. Homann-Wedeking. Transl. J.R. Foster (1968). Art of the world. Archaic Greece, Methuen & Co Ltd. London, pp. 63–65, 193.
192. ^ Jump up to:^a b R. Carpenter (1975). The esthetic basis of Greek art. Indiana University Press. pp. 55–58.
193. Jump up^ ”The same root of looking or seeing” . R. Carpenter (1975). The esthetic basis of Greek art. Indiana University Press. p.107.
194. Jump up^ idea
195. Jump up^ V.I. Leonardos(1895). Archaelogiki Ephimeris, Col 75, n 1.
196. Jump up^ Lechat (1904). La sculpture Attic avant Phidias, p. 23.
197. ^ Jump up to:^a b c C. M. Bowra (1957). The Greek experience, pp. 144–152.
198. Jump up^ See ἄτη in Liddell and Scott.
199. Jump up^ C.M. Bowra. The Greek experience, p. 159.
200. ^ Jump up to:^a b F. Schachermeyer (1964). Die Minoische Kultur des alten Creta, Kohlhammer Stuttgart, pp. 242–244.
201. Jump up^ J. Ducat (1971). Les Kouroi des Ptoion.
202. Jump up^ Homann-Wedeking (1966). Art of the World. Archaic Greece, pp. 144–150.
203. Jump up^ « Each part (finger, palm, arm, etc.) transmitted its individual existence to the next, and then to the whole » : Canon of Polykleitos, also Plotinus, Ennead I vi. i: Nigel Spivey (1997). Greek art, Phaidon Press Ltd. London. pp. 290–294.
204. Jump up^ « Mosaics in Tunisia: Apollo and the Muses ». Web.archive.org. 8 July 2008. Archived from the original on 8 July 2008. Retrieved 30 July2013.
205. Jump up^ Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980.
206. Jump up^ British Library: Management and Business Studies Portal, Charles Handy Archived 12 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine., accessed 12 November 2016
207. Jump up^ This chart is based upon Hesiod‘s Theogony, unless otherwise noted.
208. Jump up^ According to Homer, Iliad 1.570–579, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312, Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74.
209. Jump up^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 927–929, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.
210. Jump up^ According to Hesiod‘s Theogony 886–890, of Zeus’ children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena « from his head », see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84.
211. Jump up^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 183–200, Aphrodite was born from Uranus’ severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100.
212. Jump up^ According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad 3.374, 20.105; Odyssey 8.308, 320) and Dione (Iliad5.370–71), see Gantz, pp. 99–100.

References

Primary sources

• Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
• Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
• Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
• Sophocles, Oedipus Rex
• Palaephatus, On Unbelievable Tales 46. Hyacinthus (330 BCE)
• Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes.Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
• Ovid, Metamorphoses 10. 162–219 (1–8 CE)
• Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
• Philostratus the Elder, Images i.24 Hyacinthus (170–245 CE)
• Philostratus the Younger, Images 14. Hyacinthus (170–245 CE)
• Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 14 (170 CE)
• First Vatican Mythographer, 197. Thamyris et Musae

Secondary sources

• M. Bieber, 1964. Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art. Chicago.
• Hugh Bowden, 2005. Classical Athens and the Delphic Oracle: Divination and Democracy. Cambridge University Press.
• Walter Burkert, 1985. Greek Religion (Harvard University Press) III.2.5 passim
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Freese, John Henry (1911). « Apollo« . In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 184–186.
• Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2).
• Fritz Graf (2009). Apollo. Taylor & Francis US. ISBN 978-0-415-31711-5.
• Robert Graves, 1960. The Greek Myths, revised edition. Penguin.
• Miranda J. Green, 1997. Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend, Thames and Hudson.
• Karl Kerenyi, 1953. Apollon: Studien über Antiken Religion und Humanität revised edition.
• Karl Kerenyi, 1951. The Gods of the Greeks
• Mertens, Dieter; Schutzenberger, Margareta. Città e monumenti dei Greci d’Occidente: dalla colonizzazione alla crisi di fine V secolo a.C.. Roma L’Erma di Bretschneider, 2006. ISBN88-8265-367-6.
• Martin Nilsson, 1955. Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion, vol. I. C.H. Beck.
• Pauly–Wissowa, Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft: II, « Apollon ». The best repertory of cult sites (Burkert).
• Pfeiff, K.A., 1943. Apollon: Wandlung seines Bildes in der griechischen Kunst. Traces the changing iconography of Apollo.
• D.S.Robertson (1945) A handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture Cambridge University Press
• Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). « Apollo »
• Spivey Nigel (1997) Greek art Phaedon Press Ltd.

Apollo.

• Apollo at the Greek Mythology Link, by Carlos Parada

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com