Giacobbe Giusti, Hours of Maria d’Harcourt

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Hours of Maria d’Harcourt

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Hours of Maria d’Harcourt

Giacobbe Giusti, Hours of Maria d’Harcourt

The Duchess of Guelders, folio 19v.
Artist	Maître des Heures de Marie de Gueldre Maître de la Passion Maître d’Otto van Moerdrecht
Year	1415 to 1425
Catalogue	Ms. Germ. qu.42 et Cod.1908
Medium	illuminations on vellum, 2 volumes of 483 and 137 folios
Movement	Gothic art
Dimensions	18.5 cm × 13.5 cm (7.3 in × 5.3 in)
Location	Berlin State Library Austrian National Library

Maître des Heures de Marie de Gueldre Maître de la Passion Maître d’Otto van Moerdrecht
Date	vers 1415 puis vers 1425
Technique	Enluminures sur vélin
Dimensions (H × L)	18,5 × 13,5 cm
Format	2 volumes de 483 et 137 folios
Localisation	Bibliothèque d’État de Berlin ( Allemagne) Bibliothèque nationale autrichienne( Autriche)

The Hours of Maria d’Harcourtis an illuminated book of hoursproduced in 1415 in Arnhem (the text) and Nijmegen (the illuminations) in the Duchy of Guelders.^[1] It follows the Roman liturgy, with 6 full-page miniatures and 86 smaller miniatures, with stylised borders. It is held partly by the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin and partly by the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek.

 

Description

The manuscript was created in 1415 in Marienborn monastery in Arnhem divided.^[2] In the 17th century one part was owned by the Elector of Brandenburg. That is now in the Berlin State Library, Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation under the signature ms. germ. quart. 42. The second part was held by the Habsburgs and is now in the Austrian National Library in Vienna under the signature Cod. 1908. The two parts were together in the 1962 exhibition « European art around 1400 », in Vienna and described in the catalog (Nos. 207-208, pp 217–218).

Maria d’Harcourt, Duchess of Guelders and Jülich

Maria d’Harcourt was the daughter of John VI, the Count of Harcourt and Aumale (1342–1389), and Catherine de Bourbon (1342–1427), Princess of France. Her maternal uncle was Louis II, Duke of Bourbon(1337–1410). On the 5 May 1405 she married Reinald IV, Duke of Guelders and Jülich. The proclamation page in her book of hours is French in appearance and is in such a striking contrast to the other miniatures of this German-Dutch handwriting that she must have intended its insertion. But this is not just a nostalgic remembrance of their home. Their political role and the making of heir to confirm the support of Orléans by Guelders were implied conditions of their marriage; also was a big part of her dowry, about 30,000 Ecus, been paid by the Duke of Orleans with the condition that they would have to be repaid in the absence of male heirs. Maria d’Harcourt died childless 1425th

Other women without sons asked for in their hours books Mary’s help and the appropriate saint, z. B. Marguerite de Foix and Anne of Brittany . Maria von Geldern went one step further than they identified himself directly with the Blessed Mother.

Artist

In the Vigil of the Feast of St. Matthew is stated that the manuscript whose text is written in Low German, for the Duchess on February 23, 1415 in Marienborn Convent (Arnhem) between Oosterbeek and Arnhem was completed by brother Helmich de Leev,

Hours of Maria d’Harcourt – decorated text page – ONB f104

Literature

• Karl Keller: Zwei Stundenbücher aus dem geldrischen Herzogshause, das Stundenbuch der Herzogin Maria und das ihres Gemahls. Die geschichtlichen Grundlagen und die ikonographischen Probleme. Historischer Verein für Geldern und Umgegend, Geldern 1969 (Veröffentlichung des Historischen Vereins für Geldern und Umgegend 68, ZDB-ID 400950-2).

• Stundenbuch der Maria von Geldern. In: John Harthan: Stundenbücher und ihre Eigentümer. Deutsche Übersetzung Regine Klett. Herder, Freiburg (Breisgau) u. a. 1977, ISBN 3-451-17907-5, S. 78–81.

International Gothic is a period of Gothic art which began in Burgundy, France, and northern Italy in the late 14th and early 15th century.^[1] It then spread very widely across Western Europe, hence the name for the period, which was introduced by the French art historian Louis Courajod at the end of the 19th century.^[2]

Artists and portable works, such as illuminated manuscripts, travelled widely around the continent, leading to a common aesthetic among the royalty and higher nobility and considerably reducing the variation in national styles among works produced for the courtly elites. The main influences were northern France, the Netherlands, the Duchy of Burgundy, the Imperial court in Prague, and Italy. Royal marriages such as that between Richard II of England and Anne of Bohemiahelped to spread the style.

It was initially a style of courtly sophistication, but somewhat more robust versions spread to art commissioned by the emerging mercantile classes and the smaller nobility. In Northern Europe « Late Gothic » continuations of the style, especially in its decorative elements, could still be found until the early 16th century, as no alternative decorative vocabulary emerged locally to replace it before Renaissance revival of Classicism.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Simone Martini

Detail of the Annunciation (1333) by the Sienese Simone Martini, Uffizi

Usage of the terms by art historians varies somewhat, with some using the term more restrictively than others.^[3] Some art historians feel the term is « in many ways … not very helpful … since it tends to skate over both differences and details of transmission. »^[4]

References

1. ^ « Gebedenboek van Maria van Gelre ». Maria van Gelre (in Dutch).
2. ^ « Geschichte ». staatsbibliothek-berlin.de. Retrieved 2016-04-06.

•  Media related to Hours of Maria d’Harcourt at Wikimedia Commons

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hours_of_Maria_d%27Harcourt

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Saint-Génis-des-Fontaines Abbey

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Saint-Génis-des-Fontaines Abbey

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Saint-Génis-des-Fontaines Abbey

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Saint-Génis-des-Fontaines Abbey

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Saint-Génis-des-Fontaines Abbey

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Saint-Génis-des-Fontaines Abbey

Bell tower and apse of the abbey church

Saint-Génis-des-Fontaines Abbey is a Benedictine abbey in Saint-Génis-des-Fontaines, Pyrénées-Orientales, France. It was dedicated to Saint Genesius and Saint Michael, to whom the surviving church is still dedicated.

History

The monastery is recorded for the first time in 819, in a document mentioning its abbot, Sentimir. Plundered and destroyed, it was rebuilt by order of King Lothair of France in 981.

Later it came under the protection of the Counts of Roussillon and later of the Kings of Aragon. The abbey church was enlarged and re-consecrated in 1153. In the 13th century it gained a marble cloister on the north-eastern side. Subsequently the abbey declined, and in 1507 was united with Montserrat Abbey.

During the French Revolution, the monks were expelled and the complex divided between several owners. The church was reopened to worship in 1846, as the village’s parish church dedicated to Saint Michael. The cloister, which had been dismantled and sold, was bought back and re-installed in its original location in the 1980s.

Architecture

The abbey church was most likely built at the same time as the original monastery, in the 8th century. Of the original church there remain some of the foundation structures, which show its plan to have included a main apse and two deep side apses, with a long transept.

The 1153 enlargement, with the addition of the vaulted ceiling over the transept and nave, led to the reconstruction of the walls in order to support the additional weight of the roof vaults. The ceilings of the apses were also modified and decorated with frescoes, of which only a few traces remain today. The church kept the Latin Cross plan typical of Romanesque architecture, with a nave, transept and three apses. In the 17th century the church was enriched with Baroque altars.

The exterior has two bell towers from different ages. The larger one is located next to the transept and nave. The façade has several Romanesque sculptures and tombstones of monks and local notables. The main portal has an architrave with bas-reliefs commissioned by abbot Guillaume and realized in 1019-1020 in white marble from Céret. In the middle is portrayed Christ in majesty in a mandorla, supported by two archangels and flanked by two groups of three figures under the arcades, over which to either side of the mandorla is the inscription ANNO VIDESIMO QUARTO RENNATE ROTBERTO REGE WILIELMUS GRATIA ABA ISTA OPERA FIERI IUSSIT IN ONORE SANCTI GENESII CENOBII QUE VOCANT FONTANES, that is to say, « In the twenty-fourth year of the reign of King Robert, William, by the grace [of God] abbot, ordered this work to be made in honour of Saint Genesius the hermit, which is called Fontanes. » The 24th year of the reign of King Robert II of France was 1019-20. A similar sculpture, perhaps by the same artist, is also present in the Abbey of St. Andrew, 4 km from Saint-Génis-des-Fontaines Abbey.

The cloister was built in the 13th century, and was already completed in 1271. It has been supposed that a cloister existed here before, which would be the one depicted near the figures in the portal architrave, but no traces of it remain. The capitals supporting the 13th century cloister are in late Romanesque style. It has been suggested that they could originally have been painted.

• 

  Lintel 11^th ctry.

• 

  Main portal with sculpted architrave

• 

  Nave

• 

  Main altar

• 

  Sculpted capitals in the cloister

Sources

• Boulet, Louis (2000). L’abbaye romane de Sant-Genis que l’on dit « des Fontanes ». La Mandorle.

• Images of the abbey (in French)

Bibliographie

• Louis Boulet, L’abbaye romane de Sant-Genis que l’on dit « des Fontaines », La Mandorle, 2000.
• Marcel Durliat, Roussillon roman, Zodiaque, 1986.(ISBN 2-7369-0027-8).
• Géraldine Mallet, Églises romanes oubliées du Roussillon, Montpellier, Les Presses du Languedoc, 2003, 334 p.(ISBN 978-2-8599-8244-7)

• Louis Boulet, La Mandorle 66740 Saint-Genis des Fontaines, FRANCE.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-G%C3%A9nis-des-Fontaines_Abbey

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, PIETRO di COSIMO: Portrait of Simonetta Cattaneo Vespucci, Musée Condé, France

Giacobbe Giusti, PIETRO di COSIMO: Portrait of Simonetta Cattaneo Vespucci, Musée Condé, France

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, SANDRO BOTTICELLI: Simonetta Cattaneo Vespucci

 

Giacobbe Giusti, SANDRO BOTTICELLI: Simonetta Cattaneo Vespucci

 

Giacobbe Giusti, SANDRO BOTTICELLI: Simonetta Cattaneo Vespucci

 

Giacobbe Giusti, SANDRO BOTTICELLI: Simonetta Cattaneo Vespucci

 

Giacobbe Giusti, PIETRO di COSIMO: Simonetta Cattaneo Vespucci

 

Giacobbe Giusti, SANDRO BOTTICELLI: Simonetta Cattaneo Vespucci

 

Giacobbe Giusti, PIETRO di COSIMO: Portrait of Simonetta Cattaneo Vespucci, Musée Condé, France

Portrait of a woman, said to be of Simonetta Vespucci (c. 1490) by Piero di Cosimo
Born	1453 Genoa or Portovenere, Liguria, Italy
Died	26 April 1476 (aged 22–23) Florence, Italy
Spouse(s)	Marco Vespucci
Parent(s)	Gaspare Cattaneo Della Volta and Cattocchia Spinola

Simonetta Vespucci(née Cattaneo; 1453 – 26 April 1476), nicknamed la bella Simonetta, was an Italian noblewoman from Genoa, the wife of Marco Vespucci of Florence and the cousin-in-law of Amerigo Vespucci. According to her legend, before her death at 22 she was famous as the greatest beauty of her age in North Italy, and the model for many paintings (many not showing similar features at all) by Botticelli and other Florentine painters. Many art historians are infuriated by these attributions, which the Victorian critic John Ruskin is blamed for giving some respectability.^[1]

Biography

Early life and marriage

She was born as Simonetta Cattaneo circa 1453 in a part of the Republic of Genoa that is now in the Italian region of Liguria.^[2] A more precise location for her birthplace is unknown: possibly the city of Genoa,^[3] or perhaps either Portovenere or Fezzano.^[4] The Florentine poet Politian wrote that her home was « in that stern Ligurian district up above the seacoast, where angry Neptune beats against the rocks … There, like Venus, she was born among the waves. »^[5][6] Her father was a Genoese nobleman named Gaspare Cattaneo della Volta (a much-older relative of a sixteenth-century Doge of Genoa named Leonardo Cattaneo della Volta) and her mother was Gaspare’s wife, Cattocchia Spinola (another source names her parents slightly differently as Gaspare Cattaneo and Chateroccia di Marco Spinola.^[7]

At age fifteen or sixteen she married Marco Vespucci, son of Piero, who was a distant cousin of the explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci. They met in April 1469; she was with her parents at the church of San Torpete when she met Marco; the doge Piero il Fregoso and much of the Genoese nobility were present.

Marco had been sent to Genoa by his father, Piero, to study at the Banco di San Giorgio. Marco was accepted by Simonetta’s father, and he was very much in love with her, so the marriage was logical. Her parents also knew the marriage would be advantageous because Marco’s family was well connected in Florence, especially to the Medici family.

Florence

Simonetta and Marco were married in Florence. According to her legend, Simonetta was instantly popular at the Florentine court. The Medici brothers, Lorenzo and Giuliano took an instant liking toward her. Lorenzo permitted the Vespucci wedding to be held at the palazzoin Via Larga, and held the wedding reception at their lavish Villa di Careggi. Simonetta, upon arriving in Florence, was discovered by Sandro Botticelli and other prominent painters through the Vespucci family. Before long she had supposedly attracted the brothers Lorenzo and Giuliano of the ruling Medici family. Lorenzo was occupied with affairs of state, but his younger brother was free to pursue her.

At La Giostra (a jousting tournament) in 1475, held at the Piazza Santa Croce, Giuliano entered the lists bearing a banner on which was a picture of Simonetta as a helmeted Pallas Athene painted by Botticelli, beneath which was the French inscription La Sans Pareille, meaning « The unparalleled one ».^{[8][9][7][10]} It is clear that Simonetta had a reputation as an exceptional beauty in Florence,^[11] but the whole display should be considered within the conventions of courtly love; Simonetta was a married woman,^[8][9] a member of a powerful family allied to the Medici,^[11] and any actual affair would have been a huge political risk.

Giuliano won the tournament,^[8] and Simonetta was nominated “The Queen of Beauty” at that event. It is unknown, and unlikely, that they actually became lovers.

Death

Simonetta Vespucci died just one year later, presumably from tuberculosis, on the night of 26–27 April 1476. She was twenty-two at the time of her death. She was carried through the city in an open coffin for all to admire her beauty, and there seems to have been some kind of posthumous popular cult in Florence.^[11] Her husband remarried soon afterward, and Giuliano de Medici was assassinated in the Pazzi conspiracy in 1478, two years to the day after her death.

Botticelli finished painting The Birth of Venus around 1486, some ten years later. Some have claimed that Venus, in this painting, closely resembles Simonetta.^[12] This claim, however, is dismissed as a « romantic myth » by Ernst Gombrich,^[11] and « romantic nonsense » by historian Felipe Fernández-Armesto:

The vulgar assumption, for instance, that she was Botticelli’s model for all his famous beauties seems to be based on no better grounds than the feeling that the most beautiful woman of the day ought to have modelled for the most sensitive painter.^[13]

Some, including Ruskin, suggest that Botticelli also had fallen in love with her, a view supported by his request to be buried in the Church of Ognissanti – the parish church of the Vespucci – in Florence. His wish was carried out when he died some 34 years later, in 1510. However this had been Botticelli’s parish church since he was baptized there, and he was buried with his family. The church contained works by him.

There are some connections between Simonetta and Botticelli. He painted the standard carried by Giuliano at the joust in 1475, which carried an image of Pallas Athene that was very probably modelled on her; so he does seem to have painted her once at least, though the image is now lost.^[7][10] Botticelli’s main Medici patron, Giuliano’s younger cousin Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici, married Simonetta’s niece Semiramide in 1482, and it is often thought that his Primavera was painted as a wedding gift on this occasion.^[14][15][16]

Possible depictions

• 

  Portrait of a Woman by the workshop of Sandro Botticelli, early-mid 1480s

   

• 

  Portrait of a Woman by the workshop of Sandro Botticelli, mid-1480s^[17]

   

• 

  Flora in Botticelli’s Birth of Venus

   

• 

  Detail of one of the Three Graces in Primavera by Botticelli

   

 

• 

  Detail of the Venus figure in Primavera by Sandro Botticelli, circa 1482

   

 

• 

  Detail of the Venus figure in The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli, circa 1484-1486

   

 

• 
• A Satyr mourning over a Nymph by Piero di Cosimo, circa 1495

   

Regarding each Portrait of a Woman pictured above that is credited to the workshop of Sandro Botticelli, Ronald Lightbown claims they were creations of Botticelli’s workshop that were likely neither drawn nor painted exclusively by Botticelli himself. Regarding these same two paintings he also claims « [Botticell’s work]shop…executed portraits of ninfe, or fair ladies…all probably fancy portraits of ideal beauties, rather than real ladies. »^[18]

She may be depicted in the painting by Piero di Cosimo titled Portrait of a woman, said to be of Simonetta Vespucci that portrays a woman as Cleopatra with an asp around her neck and is alternatively titled by some individuals Portrait of Simonetta Vespucci. Yet how closely this resembles the living woman is uncertain, partly because if this is indeed a rendering of her form and spirit it is a posthumous portrait created about fourteen years after her death. Worth noting as well is the fact that Piero di Cosimo was only fourteen years old in the year of Vespucci’s death. The museum that currently houses this painting questions the very identity of its subject by titling it « Portrait of a woman, said to be of Simonetta Vespucci », and stating that the inscription of her name at the bottom of the painting may have been added at a later date.^[19]

Notes

1. Jump up^ Leopold Ettlinger with Helen S. Ettlinger, Botticelli, pp. 118-119, 164-168, 1976, Thames and Hudson (World of Art), ISBN 0500201536; Jiminez; Ettle
2. Jump up^ Mineo, Nicolò (1979). « CATTANEO, Simonetta ». Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, Volume 22: Castelvetro–Cavallotti (in Italian). Rome: Istituto dell’Enciclopedia Italiana. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
3. Jump up^ Richter, Luise Marie Schwab (1914). Chantilly in History and Art. Scribner. p. 146.
4. Jump up^ Farina, Rachele (2001). Simonetta: Una donna alla Corte dei Medici. Turin: Bollati Boringhieri. pp. 90, 121–23. ISBN 9788833913568. OCLC 49036189.
5. Jump up^ Ambrogini, Angelo. Giostra. 1, verse 32. This translation is somewhat loose. Maraviglia di mie belleze tenere / Non prender già ch’ i’ nacqui in grembo a Venere. A literal reading of Poliziano would put her birthplace in the town of Portovenere, but this is more likely a reference to Botticelli’s Birth of Venus.
6. Jump up^ Simioni, Attilio (1908). « Donne ed Amori Medicei ». Nuova antologia di Lettere, Scienza, ed Arti. Roma. CXXXV: 688.
7. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Lightbown 1989, p. 63.
8. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Lightbown 1989, p. 61.
9. ^ Jump up to:^a b Lightbown 1989, p. 62.
10. ^ Jump up to:^a b Lightbown 1989, p. 64.
11. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Jiminez, Jill Berk (15 October 2013). Dictionary of Artists’ Models. Routledge. p. 547. ISBN 9781135959142.
12. Jump up^ Harness, Brenda. « The Face That Launched A Thousand Prints ». Fine Art Touch. Retrieved 10 August 2009.
13. Jump up^ Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe (2007). Amerigo: The Man Who Gave His Name to America. Random House. p. 231. ISBN 1-4000-6281-0.
14. Jump up^ Lightbown 1989, p. 120.
15. Jump up^ Lightbown 1989, p. 121.
16. Jump up^ Lightbown 1989, p. 122.
17. Jump up^ « Painting at the Gemäldegalerie Berlin ». Bode-Museum (in German). 25 August 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
18. Jump up^ Lightbown 1989, p. 313.
19. Jump up^ « Portrait de femme dit de Simonetta Vespucci ». Musee Conde (in French). Retrieved 11 December 2011. Once on the museum’s web site, click on the « Recherche » section, then search by « Vespucci » to find details of this painting

References

• Ettle, Ross Brooke, « THE VENUS DILEMMA: NOTES ON BOTTICELLI AND SIMONETTA CATTANEO VESPUCCI, » Notes in the History of Art 27, no. 4 (Summer 2008): 3-10. DOI: 10.1086/sou.27.4.23207901
• Lightbown, Ronald W. (1989). Sandro Botticelli: Life and Work. Thames and Hudson (Abbeville Press). p. 336. ISBN 9780896599314.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonetta_Vespucci

Giacobbe Giusti, SIMONETTA CATTANEO VESPUCCI (BOTTICELLI)

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

 

 

Roman Theatre of Orange

UNESCO World Heritage site Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France
Location	Orange, Vaucluse, France
Part of	Roman Theatre and its Surroundings and the « Triumphal Arch » of Orange
Criteria	Cultural: (iii), (iv)
Reference	163bis-001
Inscription	1981 (5th Session)
Extensions	2007
Area	9.41 ha (23.3 acres)
Buffer zone	116 ha (290 acres)
Website	www.culturespaces.com/en/orange
Coordinates	44°8′8.6″N 4°48′30.3″ECoordinates: 44°8′8.6″N 4°48′30.3″E
Location of Roman Theatre of Orange in Vaucluse Show map of VaucluseShow map of FranceShow all

The Roman Theatre of Orange (French: Théâtre antique d’Orange) is a Roman theatre in Orange, Vaucluse, France. It was built early in the 1st century AD. The structure is owned by the municipality of Orange and is the home of the summer operafestival, the Chorégies d’Orange.

It is one of the best preserved of all Roman theatres, and served the Roman colony of Arausio (or, more specifically, Colonia Julia Firma Secundanorum Arausio: « the Julian colony of Arausio established by the soldiers of the second legion ») which was founded in 40 BC. Playing a major role in the life of the citizens, who spent a large part of their free time there, the theatre was seen by the Roman authorities not only as a means of spreading Roman culture to the colonies, but also as a way of distracting them from all political activities.

Mime, pantomime, poetry readings and the « attelana » (a kind of farce rather like the commedia dell’arte) was the dominant form of entertainment, much of which lasted all day. For the common people, who were fond of spectacular effects, magnificent stage sets became very important, as was the use of stage machinery. The entertainment offered was open to all and free of charge.

As the Western Roman Empire declined during the 4th century, by which time Christianity had become the official religion, the theatre was closed by official edict in AD 391, since the Church opposed what it regarded as uncivilized spectacles. After that, the theatre was abandoned completely. It was probably pillaged by the Visigoths in 412, and like most Roman buildings was certainly stripped of its better stone over the centuries for reuse. It was used as a defensive post in the Middle Ages. During the 16th-century religious wars, it became a refuge for the townspeople.

Construction and Structure of the Theatre

Giacobbe Giusti, Roman Theatre of Orange, France

The Orange theatre is one of few Roman theatres which still retains the Scaenae frons, at the rear of the stage, though stripped of its elaborate decoration.

Early Roman theatre were mostly constructed from wood and meant to be temporary structures. In 55BC Pompey had a stone theatre built in his home city of Rome, and thereafter grand (and permanent) Roman theatres spread widely.^[1] The Orange theatre was created under the rule of Augustus, and is believed to be one of the first of its kind in this area of modern-day France. One of the most iconic parts of this structure is the grand exterior facade, which measures to be 103 meters long and 37 meters high.^[2] Originally, there was a wooden roof across the theatre to protect the audience from unfavorable weather conditions. There is evidence on the walls that shows that, at some point, the roof was destroyed in a fire.^[2] Although it is relatively sparse in decoration and embellishment, the three story wall gives an overwhelmingly powerful appearance to the entire building. The main three doors on the first level of the facade open directly onto the stage inside the theatre, which can seat from 5,800 up to 7,300 (today, much of the seating has been reconstructed to ensure the safety of tourists and audience members).^[2]

The stage, which is 61 meters long and raised about one meter from the ground, is backed by a 37 meter high wall whose height has been preserved completely.^[2] This wall is vital to the theatre, as it helped to project sound to the large audience. The wall, also known as the scaenae frons, is the only architecturaly decorated surface throughout the entire theatre. It originally was embellished with marble mosaics of many different colors, multiple columns and friezes, and statues placed in niches.^[1] The central niche contains a 3.5 meter high statue of the emperor Augustus, although this was most likely a restoration of an original statue of Apollo, the god of music and the arts.^[1] The central door, below the niche containing this statue, is called the Royal Door, or valva regia. This door was used only by the most important, principle actors to enter and exit the stage. Above the door was a frieze decorated with centaurs, which is no longer there but is instead on display across the street in the Orange Museum (unfortunately only remains are left). The stage was covered with a modern platform when the theatre began to be used again for operas and other performances.^[2]

Reconstruction

Reconstruction of the Théâtre d’Orange began in 1825 with the intent of returning the theatre to its original purpose: to host large, exciting performances. In 1869, while still in the process of being restored, the theatre hosted “The Roman Festivals”, which brought over 10,000 guests.^{[citation needed]} A very important part of the restoration was excavating the area around the theatre, which occurred in the 1930s. This excavation and leveling of surrounding buildings uncovered many historical objects and artifacts that furthered knowledge about the history and uses of the structure.^[1] Today, all three levels of seating have been completely restored, along with many staircases, major parts of the pavement, the stage, the orchestra, and parts of walls.^[2]

Current uses of the Theatre

During the Renaissance, around the 12th century, the Théâtre d’Orange was used by the church and play companies to host performances. In the 16th century this tradition stopped once again when the town was sacked during The French Wars of Religion. Much of the population left, and it took until the 19th century for the theatre to be returned to its original purpose. Today, the Théâtre d’Orange is considered the best preserved Roman theatre in all of Europe. It is managed by Culturespaces, an organization that also manages other related cultural sites in the area, such as the Orange Museumand the Triumphal Arch, among other sites in the South of France. This great effort of preservation allows it to be used not just as a historical site but also as a venue for concerts and theatrical performances. The first major festival held in the theatre in 1869 after the restoration began was called “The Roman Festival”. This festival developed into an annual festival called the Chorégies (see below). These decadent, multimedia events attract thousands of visitors from around the world. During the rest of the year, the Théâtre d’Orange is a major tourist attraction. Tourists can walk through the main theatre and surrounding rooms and corridors while being led by an audio guide.

The « Roman Festival » and the Chorégies

A performance at the 2007 Chorégies festival

During the 19th century the theatre slowly began to recover its original splendour, due to the efforts of Prosper Mérimée, who then held the position of director of « Monuments Historiques ». Under his direction, restoration work began in 1825 and in 1869 the theatre became the home of a « Roman Festival » which celebrated the glory of Rome and included a performance of Méhul‘s opera, Joseph. In the latter part of the century, all the major players of the French classical stage appeared in the Orange festivals, including Sarah Bernhardt who played « Phèdre » in 1903.

By the end of the century, the tiered seats were restored, a reflection of the bureaucratic process. In 1902 the festival was given a new name, the « Chorégies, » planned as an annual summer festival. The name comes from the tax that was imposed on wealthy Romans to pay for theatrical productions. Until 1969 the Chorégies consisted of plays, alternating with musical works, opera and symphonies. However, after that date, Orange became solely an opera festival and theatrical works were performed at Avignon.

In 1981 UNESCO declared the theatre as a World Heritage Site.

Gallery

• 

  Seating in the theatre
• 

  The centaur frieze
• 

  The new stage roof
• 

  Roman Theatre with new stage roof
• 

  The French Foreign Legion celebrating Camerone Day in the Roman Theatre of Orange

• List of opera festivals

References

1. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d « Arausio.(Orange).Theatre.Commentary ». http://www.whitman.edu. Retrieved 2015-11-11.
2. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f} « The Roman Theatre of Orange ». Théâtre Antique & Musée d’Orange. Retrieved 2015-11-11.

• Official website
• « Les Chorégies d’Orange ». Les Chorégies d’Orange. Retrieved 2015-11-06. Les Choregies d’Orange

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Theatre_of_Orange

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Camp romain

Giacobbe Giusti, Camp romain

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Camp romain

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Camp romain

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Camp romain

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Camp romain

La Porta Palatina di Julia Augusta Taurinorum (Torino), città costruita sulla pianta dell’antico castra militare.

Camp romain

Contrairement à toutes les armées antiques, lorsque les légions de la Rome antique en campagne quittent la zone totalement sûre, elles construisent chaque soir un camp fortifié(castrum en latin, pluriel : castra). Cette habitude est très ancienne, et remonte peut-être aux réformes de Camille (Marius a plus tard codifié ces habitudes).

Reconstitution des circonvallations romaines autour d’Alésia à l’archéodrome de Beaune, France

Giacobbe Giusti, Camp romain

Reconstitution du camp romain de Templeborough, Angleterre. Produit par Rotherham Museums and Galleries.

Construction

Un camp d’étape de huit légions (pour 48 000 hommes, muletiers compris) a une forme rectangulaire de 655 sur 610 mètres de côté environ, soit une superficie de 40 hectares (Faux-Vésigneul dans la Marne + Jules César BG2). Un camp d’hivernage ou permanent serait deux fois plus grand.

Choix du site

Pour des raisons tactiques, le lieu est de préférence choisi en hauteur. Mais les critères essentiels sont :

• l’accès sûr et facile (car le camp est établi en fin de journée, donc les troupes sont fatiguées) ;
• la présence d’un point d’eau ;
• des prairies suffisantes pour le fourrage des chevaux et des bêtes de somme utilisées ;
• un terrain le plus uni possible, avec assez de pente pour le drainage : ni rochers, ni racines.

Il est préférable d’être à proximité d’un bois pour construire le camp. Mais on en connaît où tout est en pierre sèche.

Plan

Plan du camp romain :
1. Prætorium
2. Via prætoria
3. Via principalis
4. Porta principalis (dextra, droite)
5. Porta decumana
6. Porta principalis (senestra, gauche)
7. Porta prætoria

Le principe est toujours le même, ce qui permet une construction très rapide, même si l’on retrouve rarement deux camps identiques. Le tribun et les centurions chargés de l’établissement du camp arpentent le terrain et fixent l’emplacement du prætorium (la tente du général), carré de 60 mètres de côté. Le drapeau blanc planté à cet endroit sert de repère autour duquel s’organise tout le camp : voies, tentes, forum et enceinte. Derrière l’enceinte, un dégagement de l’ordre de 18 mètres (60 pieds selon Ps-Hygin) est laissé libre afin de permettre des mouvements des unités, et mettre les premières rangées de tentes à l’abri des projectiles adverses.

Deux voies principales, la via principalis et le decumanus, se coupent à angle droit devant le prætorium. Si le nombre de légions que le camp abrite est plus élevé, une via quintana parallèle à la via principalis est aussi tracée.

Dans les camps d’hiver ou permanents, les troupes d’élites campent de part et d’autre du prætorium, formées de fantassins et de cavaliers qui logent dans de longs baraquements rectangulaires divisés en dix chambrées, accueillant huit soldats chacune. Toute une centurie loge dans un baraquement, constitué d’une succession de doubles-pièces. La première sert de vestiaire aux soldats pour entreposer leurs armes et autres effets personnels encombrants. La deuxième est la chambrée proprement dite, avec une cheminée et des châlits superposés pour coucher les huit hommes du contubernium, placés sous la surveillance d’un chef de chambrée. Chaque chambrée se compose d’une chambre précédée d’une antichambre au sol de terre battue¹.

Les valetudinaria sont des zones médicales incorporées au camp à partir de la professionnalisation des armées d’Auguste au moins, et sont les versions militaires des aesculapia.

Déroulement de la construction

Porta decumana (Porte Nord) au Camp romain Mautern, Donau, Basse-Autriche.

Les soldats ne commencent à aménager le camp que lorsque le plan est entièrement matérialisé au sol par des fanions de couleur. Le fossé est creusé de façon à ce qu’un talus soit formé (agger). Il est stabilisé par des mottes de gazon. L’infanterie lourde creuse (3000 hommes), pendant que les troupes légères et la cavalerie montent la garde entre l’ennemi et le camp. Ces gardes débroussaillent également le glacis, de façon à empêcher une approche masquée de l’ennemi. Les branchages sont utilisés pour en faire des cervis, des pieux d’arrêt disposés sur le glacis, le fossé ou le talus. Seul le train de bagages entre alors que le fossé n’est pas creusé ; puis au fur et à mesure, l’infanterie lourde entre, suivie de la cavalerie lorsque la palissade (vallum) côté ennemi est posée. Ceci est le discours classique. Un scénario plus proche de l’archéologie et des textes voudrait que chaque soir, les troupes répètent la manœuvre d’urgence. La colonne (agmen) se divise en deux colonnes qui s’écartent en forme de rectangle (agmen quadrata). Le convoi des mules entre dans le rectangle et l’arrière-garde prend position en ligne sur le dernier côté. Une fois immobilisées et les alignements rectifiés, les troupes passent au travail de retranchement, pendant que les muletiers installent les tentes. Cela se comprend à deux indices : les côtés des camps sont en général droits, mais leurs angles sont toujours approximatifs. Leur périmètre, et souvent chaque côté, est un multiple de 94 m, qui doit être une longueur de manipule. [Michel Laforgue signale deux exceptions en France où ces 94 m sont remplacés par 70 m : Alise-Ste-Reine (21) et Folleville (80).] Les mesures que Karl Gutmann a pu effectuer des fondations du fort romain Larga [archive] dans le sud de l’Alsace font état de 80 m.

L’enceinte

Chemin de ronde du camp romain permanent de Saalburg

Schéma de Tutulus : les bandes vertes représentent l’agger
les bandes marron la fossa

Même pour une seule nuit, celle-ci est toujours construite, au prix d’une à deux heures de travail. Un fossé de coupe triangulaire est creusé tout autour, de profondeur et largeur variables. La terre est rejetée vers l’intérieur du camp et augmentée de matériaux rapportés (mottes de gazon, pierres, etc) de façon à former un talus (agger) de 6 m environ à la base et de 3 m d’élévation par rapport au fond du fossé. Cette digue, dont le sommet formant un chemin de ronde est assez large pour laisser passer plusieurs hommes de front, est ou non couronnée d’une palissade (vallum), formée de pieux portés par les légionnaires. Ces pieux sont hauts d’environ 1,7 m, et pointus aux deux bouts (pour faciliter l’enfoncement et pour améliorer l’aspect défensif). Enfoncés de trente cm, ils rehaussent encore l’escarpe (soit un total d’environ 4 m).

Les angles du camp sont toujours arrondis, pour que chaque défenseur n’ait qu’un petit angle à surveiller. Le plan en carte à jouer qui en résulte est caractéristique de l’armée romaine.

Les portes sont de simples interruptions de l’enceinte, en nombre variable, classiquement quatre. En avant de l’ouverture, un fossé et un talus protègent le passage contre une irruption de la cavalerie adverse, en brisant son élan. La chicane peut avoir différentes formes : clé = clavicula ; écriteau = titulus, souvent corrigé en tutulus.

En fonction de la menace, on peut ajouter les jours suivants des tours de bois sur la digue, en commençant par les angles et les portes, un parapet, des créneaux, et même envisager des vantaux aux portes, maintenus entre les tours.

Défense du camp

Le plan à périmètre réduit permet de n’occuper qu’une faible partie de la légion à la garde : pour un périmètre de 1 000 m, avec un garde tous les 10 à 15 m, seuls 70 à 100 hommes sont tenus éveillés (plus les postes aux entrées et les rondes) soit moins d’un trentième de la troupe. La légion qui repart le lendemain est donc fraîche et dispose, ayant bénéficié d’un sommeil tranquille. On sait par Pseudo-Hygin (de munitionibus castrorum) qu’un légionnaire sur cinq était d’astreinte de nuit. Même s’il n’avait de service effectif que pendant une seule veille (un quart de la nuit), cela représente 5 % de l’effectif à monter la garde.

Organisation de la garde

Les velites (troupes légères sous la République) formaient des avant-postes en dehors du camp, près des portes dont ils assuraient la garde.

Chaque sentinelle désignée par un sous-officier de son manipule se voit remettre par un tribun une tablette de terre cuite (tessera) portant un signe inscrit.

Au cours de la nuit, quatre cavaliers effectuent ensemble quatre rondes. Au début de chaque tour de veille, le clairon sonne, et les rondes commencent. Les cavaliers demandent à chaque sentinelle sa tessera. Lorsqu’une sentinelle est endormie ou a déserté son poste, la chose est constatée et la ronde continue. Les tesseræ sont portées le matin au tribun, qui retrouve le coupable, immédiatement condamné à mort et exécuté par lapidation.

En cas d’attaque

Cette carte des cantonnements des légions romaines en 80 illustre le déploiement des armées dans l’Empire, et indique donc les zones de friction avec les barbares ou les provinces où subsiste potentiellement une rébellion.

Tous les 50 m, des postes d’hommes dormant en armes sont prêts à intervenir. Le plan immuable permet, en cas d’attaque, qui ne se fait jamais totalement par surprise, à cause du glacis débroussaillé d’au moins 50 m, à tous les légionnaires de se porter au point prévu sans attendre un ordre, selon le plan et les exercices répétés. Cette disposition permet de repousser une attaque soudaine et limitée.

En cas d’attaque en force, le faible périmètre (1 000 m) permet d’aligner trois hommes au mètre, et en faisant entrer l’infanterie légère, de conserver 1500 hommes en réserve pour renforcer tel ou tel point en difficulté. Ces effectifs sont là aussi rapidement en place, la disposition du camp et la place de chacun étant connue à l’avance, un ordre n’ayant pas besoin d’être expliqué. Dans toute l’histoire de Rome, aucun camp défendu par sa légion entière n’a été pris, par attaque de jour ou de nuit, par surprise ou en règle.

Canabae

 Canabae.

Les canabae ou cabanæ sont des espaces situés à l’extérieur des camps romains qui accueillent une population civile vivant de ses échanges avec l’armée.

Les légions romaines en campagne drainent dans leur sillage un nombre de civils : marchands qui vendent matériel et commodités aux soldats mais qui peuvent aussi leur acheter du butin ou des esclaves, artisans, prêtres officieux, indigents, prostituées et concubines. Lorsqu’un camp provisoire ou permanent est établi, les civils y sont interdits et ils s’installent à l’extérieur, souvent directement en contact avec le fossé².

Base de départ

De tels camps peuvent tout à fait servir de base à une sortie armée pour combattre l’ennemi, la légion ayant alors un point de repli sûr. Des effectifs de garde importants sont laissés, à la fois pour garder le camp et les bagages. L’avantage, même à effectifs réduits, est que la légion est expedita : débarrassée de son barda (en marche, elle est impedita, embarrassée par les impedimenta : bagage personnel de chaque légionnaire, mules et muletiers portant les tentes, les meules, l’artillerie, l’argent, plus le butin et les otages éventuels, etc.)

Camps semi-permanents ou permanents

Camp romain permanent de Saalburg.

Le plan est identique, avec une muraille en pierre et un fossé un peu plus profond. Pour l’ensemble de l’enceinte, quatre tours de garde sont prévues.

De nombreuses villes tirent leur origine, voire leur nom, de ces camps romains, principalement dans les anciennes provinces frontières de l’Empire, où étaient établis les forts les plus importants : Castres^{[réf. nécessaire]} ou Strasbourg en France ; Barcelone ou Tarragone en Espagne ; Chester, Lancaster, Lincoln ou Manchester en Angleterre ; Cologne, Bonn ou Mayence en Allemagne ; Nimègue aux Pays-Bas ; etc.

Le castrum au Haut Moyen Âge

Les peuples germaniques installés en Occident édifient des castra sur ce modèle, prenant appui sur des zones élevées dans le paysage (les mottes castrales).

On en trouve en Aquitanique lors de l’établissement de la patrie gothique, dans la plaine du Forez traversée par la Loire, jusqu’aux plaines de Grande-Pologne dans lesquelles les Polanes s’organisent au viii^e siècle.

Le terme castrum s’applique également aux villages plus ou moins fortifiés établis sur des hauteurs d’accès difficile, autour d’un castellum, château de construction assez sommaire : la plupart des châteaux dits « cathares » de l’Aude, de l’Ariège, de l’Hérault, des Pyrénées-Orientales, étaient des castra, d’origine très ancienne et sans rapport avec la religion cathare. Leur situation était leur principale défense, les maisons étaient construites en pierres sèches prises sur place, certaines façades aveugles formant rempart et des murs assuraient une protection minimale. Hormis une barbacane devant la porte principale, il n’y avait généralement aucun autre système défensif. Leur position escarpée interdisait souvent l’emploi d’armes balistiques comme catapultes et trébuchets (à quelques exceptions comme Minerve ou Montségur). Les castracapitulèrent surtout après de longs sièges où les vivres et surtout l’eau finirent par manquer. Les habitations disparurent après la conquête française et les châteaux furent reconstruits, ou tombèrent totalement en ruine. Les castra de plaine, ou du moins élevés sur des collines de moindre hauteur, évoluèrent en villages de type classique, une église remplaçant le castellumcentral, comme à Fanjeaux..

Références

1. ↑ François Gilbert, Le soldat romain : à la fin de la République et sous le Haut Empire, Errance, 2004, p. 87.
2. ↑ François Gilbert, Le Soldat romain : à la fin de la république et sous le haut-empire, Errance, 2012, p. 105.

Gelot (Alain), Le camp légionnaire de Faux-Vésigneul, au lieu-dit « le Champ Gabriel » (Marne), et la route d’Agrippa, Études Marnaises, n°119, 2004, pp. 9-23

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

• Castellum, fortin romain
• Camp militaire
• Decumanus, dans une ville romaine
• Vindonissa
• Camp romain d’Obernburg
• De munitionibus castrorum, traité attribué à Pseudo-Hyginus.
• Hospitalitas

• La guerre à l’époque romaine [archive] sur le site Stratisc
• Site sur la Légion Romaine [archive] (La partie 5 traite du camp romain)

https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrum

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Biblical Magi

Giacobbe Giusti, Biblical Magi

I Re Magi in viaggio scolpiti nella facciata del Duomo di Fidenza; sopra al bassorilievoi tre nomi: Caspar, Baltasar e Melchior.

Giacobbe Giusti, Biblical Magi

Adoration of the Magi, tondo by Fra Angelico and Filippo Lippi, c. 1450 (NGA, Washington)

L’Adorazione dei Magi del Beato Angelico e di Filippo Lippi

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Biblical Magi

The three Magi before Herod, France, early 15th century. Stained glass: colored glass

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Biblical Magi

Syracuse – Tomb of Adelfia – IV c AC –Museo Paolo Orsi

Giacobbe Giusti, Biblical Magi

The Three Wise Kings, Catalan Atlas, 1375, fol. V: « This province is called Tarshish, from which came the Three Wise Kings, and they came to Bethlehem in Judaea with their gifts and worshipped Jesus Christ, and they are entombed in the city of Cologne two days journey from Bruges. »

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Biblical Magi

The Three Magi, Byzantine mosaic c. 565, Basilica of Sant’Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, Italy (restored during the 18th century). As here Byzantine art usually depicts the Magi in Persian clothing which includes breeches, capes, and Phrygian caps.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Biblical Magi

One of the earliest known depictions from a third-century sarcophagus (Vatican Museums). The clothing of the Magi here is typical of Parthian nobles.

 Giacobbe Giusti, Biblical Magi

The Three Magi, Byzantine mosaic c. 565, Basilica of Sant’Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, Italy (restored during the 18th century). As here Byzantine art usually depicts the Magi in Persian clothing which includes breeches, capes, and Phrygian caps.

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The biblical Magi^[a](/ˈmædʒaɪ/^[1] or /ˈmeɪdʒaɪ/; singular: magus), also referred to as the (Three) Wise Men or (Three) Kings, were, in the Gospel of Matthew and Christian tradition, a group of distinguished foreigners who visited Jesus after his birth, bearing gifts of gold, frankincense and myrrh. They are regular figures in traditional accounts of the nativitycelebrations of Christmas and are an important part of Christian tradition.

The Gospel of Matthew is the only one of the four canonical gospelsthat mentions the Magi. Matthew reports that they came « from the east » to worship the « king of the Jews ».^[2]The gospel never actually mentions the number of Magi, but most western Christian denominations have traditionally assumed them to have been three in number, based on the statement that they brought three gifts.^[3] In Eastern Christianity, especially the Syriac churches, the Magi often number twelve.^[4] Their identification as kings in later Christian writings is probably linked to Psalms 72:11, « May all kings fall down before him ».^[5][6]

Biblical account

Traditional nativity scenes depict three « Wise Men » visiting the infant Jesus on the night of his birth, in a manger accompanied by the shepherds and angels, but this should be understood as an artistic convention allowing the two separate scenes of the Adoration of the Shepherds on the birth night and the later Adoration of the Magito be combined for convenience.^[7] The single biblical account in Matthew simply presents an event at an unspecified point after Christ’s birth in which an unnumbered party of unnamed « wise men » (« μάγοι ») visits him in a house (« οἰκίαν »),^[8] not a stable, with only « his mother » mentioned as present. The New Revised Standard Version of Matthew 2:1–12 describes the visit of the Magi in this manner:

In the time of King Herod, after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea, wise men from the East came to Jerusalem, asking, « Where is the child who has been born king of the Jews? For we observed his star at its rising, and have come to pay him homage. » When King Herod heard this, he was frightened and all Jerusalem with him; and calling together all the chief priests and scribes of the people, he inquired of them where the Messiah was to be born. They told him, « In Bethlehem of Judea; for so it has been written by the prophet: ‘And you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, are by no means least among the rulers of Judah; for from you shall come a ruler who is to shepherd my people Israel.' » Then Herod secretly called for the wise men and learned from them the exact time when the star had appeared. Then he sent them to Bethlehem, saying, « Go and search diligently for the child; and when you have found him, bring me word so that I may also go and pay him homage. » When they had heard the king, they set out; and there, ahead of them, went the star that they had seen at its rising, until it stopped over the place where the child was. When they saw that the star had stopped, they were overwhelmed with joy. On entering the house, they saw the child with Mary his mother; and they knelt down and paid him homage. Then, opening their treasure chests, they offered him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. And having been warned in a dream not to return to Herod, they left for their own country by another path.

The text specifies no interval between the birth and the visit, and artistic depictions and the closeness of the traditional dates of December 25 and January 6 encourage the popular assumption that the visit took place the same winter as the birth, but later traditions varied, with the visit taken as occurring up to two winters later. This maximum interval explained Herod’s command at Matthew 2:16–18 that the Massacre of the Innocents included boys up to two years old. More recent commentators, not tied to the traditional feast days, may suggest a variety of intervals.^[9]

The wise men are mentioned twice shortly thereafter in verse 16, in reference to their avoidance of Herod after seeing Jesus, and what Herod had learned from their earlier meeting. The star which they followed has traditionally become known as the Star of Bethlehem.

Description

The Magi are popularly referred to as wise men and kings. The word magi is the plural of Latinmagus, borrowed from Greek μάγος magos,^[10] as used in the original Greek text of the Gospel of Matthew (« μάγοι »). Greek magos itself is derived from Old Persianmaguŝ from the Avestanmagâunô, i.e., the religious caste into which Zoroaster was born (see Yasna 33.7: « ýâ sruyê parê magâunô » = « so I can be heard beyond Magi »). The term refers to the Persian priestly caste of Zoroastrianism.^[11] As part of their religion, these priests paid particular attention to the stars and gained an international reputation for astrology, which was at that time highly regarded as a science. Their religious practices and use of astrology caused derivatives of the term Magi to be applied to the occult in general and led to the English term magic, although Zoroastrianism was in fact strongly opposed to sorcery. The King James Version translates the term as wise men; the same translation is applied to the wise men led by Daniel of earlier Hebrew Scriptures (Daniel 2:48). The same word is given as sorcerer and sorcery when describing « Elymas the sorcerer » in Acts 13:6–11, and Simon Magus, considered a heretic by the early Church, in Acts 8:9–13. Several translations refer to the men outright as astrologers at Matthew Chapter 2, including New English Bible (1961); Phillips New Testament in Modern English(J.B.Phillips, 1972); Twentieth Century New Testament (1904 revised edition); Amplified Bible (1958-New Testament); An American Translation (1935, Goodspeed); and The Living Bible (K. Taylor, 1962-New Testament).

Although the Magi are commonly referred to as « kings, » there is nothing in the account from the Gospel of Matthew that implies that they were rulers of any kind. The identification of the Magi as kings is linked to Old Testament prophecies that describe the Messiah being worshipped by kings in Isaiah 60:3, Psalm 68:29, and Psalm 72:10, which reads, « Yea, all kings shall fall down before him: all nations serve him. »^[12][13][14] Early readers reinterpreted Matthew in light of these prophecies and elevated the Magi to kings. By AD 500 all commentators adopted the prevalent tradition that the three were kings.^[15] Later Christian interpretation stressed the Adorations of the Magi and shepherds as the first recognition by the people of the earth of Christ as the Redeemer, but the reformer John Calvin was vehemently opposed to referring to the Magi as kings. He once wrote: « But the most ridiculous contrivance of the Papists on this subject is, that those men were kings… Beyond all doubt, they have been stupefied by a righteous judgment of God, that all might laugh at [their] gross ignorance. »^[16][17]

Names

Giacobbe Giusti, Biblical Magi

Herrad of Landsberg: The three Magi (named as Patisar, Caspar and Melchior), illustration from the Hortus deliciarum (12th century)

The New Testament does not give the names of the Magi. However, traditions and legends identify a variety of different names for them.^[18] In the Western Christian church, they have been all regarded as saints and are commonly known as:

• Melchior (/ˈmɛlkiˌɔːr/;^[19] also Melichior^[20]), a Persian scholar;
• Caspar (/ˈkæspər/ or /ˈkæspɑːr/;^[21] also Gaspar, Jaspar, Jaspas, Gathaspa,^[20][22]and other variations);
• Balthazar (/ˈbælθəˌzɑːr/ or /bælˈθæzər/;^[23] also Balthasar, Balthassar, and Bithisarea^[20]), a Babylonian scholar.

Encyclopædia Britannica^[24] states: « according to Western church tradition, Balthasar is often represented as a king of Arabia, Melchior as a king of Persia, and Gaspar as a king of India. » These names apparently derive from a Greek manuscript probably composed in Alexandria around 500, and which has been translated into Latin with the title Excerpta Latina Barbari.^[20] Another Greek document from the 8th century, of presumed Irish origin and translated into Latin with the title Collectanea et Flores, continues the tradition of three kings and their names and gives additional details.^[25][26]

Caspar by Jan van Bijlert. Oil on panel. Circa 1640-50

One candidate for the origin of the name Caspar appears in the Acts of Thomas as Gondophares (21 – c. AD 47), i.e., Gudapharasa (from which « Caspar » might derive as corruption of « Gaspar »). This Gondophares declared independence from the Arsacids to become the first Indo-Parthian king, and he was allegedly visited by Thomas the Apostle. According to Ernst Herzfeld, his name is perpetuated in the name of the Afghan city Kandahar, which he is said to have founded under the name Gundopharron.^[27]

In contrast, many Syrian Christians name the Magi Larvandad, Gushnasaph, and Hormisdas.^[28] These names have a far greater likelihood of being originally Persian, though that does not guarantee their authenticity.

In the Eastern churches, Ethiopian Christianity, for instance, has Hor, Karsudan, and Basanater, while the Armenian Catholics have Kagpha, Badadakharida and Badadilma.^[29][30] Many Chinese Christians believe that one of the magi came from China.^[31]

Country of origin and journey

The phrase from the east (ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν), more literally from the rising [of the sun], is the only information Matthew provides about the region from which they came. The Parthian Empire, centered in Persia, occupied virtually all of the land east of Judea and Syria (except for the deserts of Arabia to the southeast). Though the empire was tolerant of other religions, its dominant religion was Zoroastrianism, with its priestly magos class.^[32]

Although Matthew’s account does not explicitly cite the motivation for their journey (other than seeing the star in the east, which they took to be the star of the King of the Jews), the Syriac Infancy Gospel provides some clarity by stating explicitly in the third chapter that they were pursuing a prophecy from their prophet, Zoradascht (Zoroaster).^[33]

There is an Armenian tradition identifying the « Magi of Bethlehem » as Balthasar of Arabia, Melchior of Persia, and Gaspar of India.^[34] Historian John of Hildesheimrelates a tradition in the ancient silk road city of Taxila (near Islamabad in Pakistan) that one of the Magi passed through the city on the way to Bethlehem.^[35]

James Tissot: The Magi Journeying (c. 1890), Brooklyn Museum, New York City

Sebastian Brock, a historian of Christianity, has said: « It was no doubt among converts from Zoroastrianism that… certain legends were developed around the Magi of the Gospels ».^[36][37] And Anders Hultgård concluded that the Gospel story of the Magi was influenced by an Iranian legend concerning magi and a star, which was connected with Persian beliefs in the rise of a star predicting the birth of a ruler and with myths describing the manifestation of a divine figure in fire and light.^[38]

A model for the homage of the Magi might have been provided, it has been suggested, by the journey to Rome of King Tiridates I of Armenia, with his magi, to pay homage to the Emperor Nero, which took place in 66 AD, a few years before the date assigned to the composition of the Gospel of Matthew.^[39][40]

There was a tradition that the Central Asian Naimans and their Christian relatives, the Keraites, were descended from the Biblical Magi.^[41] This heritage passed to the Mongol dynasty of Genghis Khan when Sorghaghtani, niece of the Keraite ruler Toghrul, married Tolui, the youngest son of Genghis, and became the mother of Möngke Khan and his younger brother and successor, Kublai Khan. Toghrul became identified with the legendary Central Asian Christian king, Prester John, whose Mongol descendants were sought as allies against the Muslims by contemporary European monarchs and popes.^[42]Sempad the Constable, elder brother of King Hetoum I of Cilician Armenia, visited the Mongol court in Karakorum in 1247–1250 and in 1254. He wrote a letter to Henry I King of Cyprus and Queen Stephanie (Sempad’s sister) from Samarkand in 1243, in which he said: “Tanchat [Tangut, or Western Xia], which is the land from whence came the Three Kings to Bethlehem to worship the Lord Jesus which was born. And know that the power of Christ has been, and is, so great, that the people of that land are Christians; and the whole land of Chata [Khitai, or Kara-Khitai] believes those Three Kings. I have myself been in their churches and have seen pictures of Jesus Christ and the Three Kings, one offering gold, the second frankincense, and the third myrrh. And it is through those Three Kings that they believe in Christ, and that the Chan and his people have now become Christians”.^[43] The legendary Christian ruler of Central Asia, Prester John was reportedly a descendant of one of the Magi.^[44]

« Long before the time of Christ, India had trade relations with Palestine; much of the commerce between the Orient and the Mediterranean civilizations (including Egypt, Greece, and Rome) passed through Jerusalem », so it is very likely that Wise Men could have been « great sages of India », as Paramahansa Yogananda wrote in his “The Second Coming of Christ – The Resurrection of the Christ Within You” (2004, pp. 56–59).

Gestures of respect

 

Adorazione dei Magi by Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, c. 1655 (Toledo Museum of Art, Ohio

The Magi are described as « falling down », « kneeling » or « bowing » in the worship of Jesus.^[45] This gesture, together with Luke’s birth narrative, had an important effect on Christian religious practices. They were indicative of great respect, and typically used when venerating a king. While prostration is now rarely practised in the West it is still relatively common in the Eastern Churches, especially during Lent. Kneeling has remained an important element of Christian worship to this day.

Traditional identities and symbolism

Apart from their names, the three Magi developed distinct characteristics in Christian tradition, so that between them they represented the three ages of (adult) man, three geographical and cultural areas, and sometimes other things. In the normal Western account, reflected in art by the 14th century (for example in the Arena Chapel by Giotto in 1305) Caspar is old, normally with a white beard, and gives the gold; he is « King of Tarsus, land of merchants » on the Mediterranean coast of modern Turkey, and is first in line to kneel to Christ. Melchior is middle-aged, giving frankincense from his native Arabia, and Balthazar is a young man, very often and increasingly black-skinned, with myrrh from Saba (modern south Yemen). Their ages were often given as 60, 40 and 20 respectively, and their geographical origins were rather variable, with Balthazar increasingly coming from Ethiopia or other parts of Africa, and being represented accordingly.^[46] Balthazar’s blackness has been the subject of considerable recent scholarly attention; in art it is found mostly in northern Europe, beginning from the 12th century, and becoming very common in the north by the 15th.^[47]

The three gifts of the magi, left to right: gold, frankincense, and myrrh.

Gifts

Three gifts are explicitly identified in Matthew: gold, frankincense, and myrrh, in Koine Greek: chrysós(χρυσός), líbanos (λίβανος) and smýrna (σμύρνα). Many different theories of the meaning and symbolism of the gifts have been brought forward. While gold is fairly obviously explained, frankincense, and particularly myrrh, are much more obscure. See the previous section for who gave which.

One of the earliest known depictions from a third-century sarcophagus (Vatican Museums). The clothing of the Magi here is typical of Parthian nobles.

The theories generally break down into two groups:

1. All three gifts are ordinary offerings and gifts given to a king. Myrrh being commonly used as an anointing oil, frankincense as a perfume, and gold as a valuable.
2. The three gifts had a spiritual meaning: gold as a symbol of kingship on earth, frankincense (an incense) as a symbol of deity, and myrrh (an embalming oil) as a symbol of death.

   • This dates back to Origen in Contra Celsum: « gold, as to a king; myrrh, as to one who was mortal; and incense, as to a God. »^[48]
   • These interpretations are alluded to in the verses of the popular carol « We Three Kings » in which the magi describe their gifts. The last verse includes a summary of the interpretation: « Glorious now behold Him arise/King and God and sacrifice. »
   • Sometimes this is described more generally as gold symbolizing virtue, frankincense symbolizing prayer, and myrrh symbolizing suffering.

Myrrh was used as an embalming ointment and as a penitential incense in funerals and cremations until the 15th century. The « holy oil » traditionally used by the Eastern Orthodox Church for performing the sacraments of chrismation and unction is traditionally scented with myrrh, and receiving either of these sacraments is commonly referred to as « receiving the myrrh ». The picture of the Magi on the 7th century Franks Casket shows the third visitor – he who brings myrrh – with a valknutover his back, a pagan symbol referring to Death.^[49]

It has been suggested by scholars that the « gifts » were medicinal rather than precious material for tribute.^[50][51][52]

The Syrian King Seleucus II Callinicus is recorded to have offered gold, frankincense and myrrh (among other items) to Apollo in his temple at Miletus in 243 BC, and this may have been the precedent for the mention of these three gifts in Gospel of Matthew (2:11). It was these three gifts, it is thought, which were the chief cause for the number of the Magi becoming fixed eventually at three.^[53]

This episode can be linked to Isaiah 60 and to Psalm 72 which report gifts being given by kings, and this has played a central role in the perception of the Magi as kings, rather than as astronomer-priests. In a hymn of the late 4th-century hispanicpoet Prudentius, the three gifts have already gained their medieval interpretation as prophetic emblems of Jesus’ identity, familiar in the carol « We Three Kings » by John Henry Hopkins, Jr., 1857.

John Chrysostom suggested that the gifts were fit to be given not just to a king but to God, and contrasted them with the Jews’ traditional offerings of sheep and calves, and accordingly Chrysostom asserts that the Magi worshiped Jesus as God.

Adoración de los Reyes Magos by El Greco, 1568 (Museo Soumaya, Mexico City)

What subsequently happened to these gifts is never mentioned in the scripture, but several traditions have developed.^[54] One story has the gold being stolen by the two thieves who were later crucified alongside Jesus. Another tale has it being entrusted to and then misappropriated by Judas. One tradition suggests that Joseph and Mary used the gold to finance their travels when they fled Bethlehem after an angel had warned, in a dream, about King Herod’splan to kill Jesus. And another story proposes the theory that the myrrh given to them at Jesus’ birth was used to anoint Jesus’ body after his crucifixion.

There was a 15th-century golden case purportedly containing the Gift of the Magi housed in the Monastery of St. Paul of Mount Athos. It was donated to the monastery in the 15th century by Mara Branković, daughter of the King of SerbiaĐurađ Branković, wife to the OttomanSultanMurat II and godmother to Mehmet II the Conqueror (of Constantinople). After the Athens earthquake of September 9, 1999 they were temporarily displayed in Athens in order to strengthen faith and raise money for earthquake victims. The relics were displayed in Ukraine and Belarus in Christmas of 2014, and thus left Greece for the first time since the 15th century.^[55]

Martyrdom traditions

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Biblical Magi

The Three Wise Kings, Catalan Atlas, 1375, fol. V: « This province is called Tarshish, from which came the Three Wise Kings, and they came to Bethlehem in Judaea with their gifts and worshipped Jesus Christ, and they are entombed in the city of Cologne two days journey from Bruges. »

Christian Scriptures record nothing about the Biblical Magi after reporting their going back to their own country (Matthew 2:12 uses the feminine singular noun, χώραν, noting one country, territory or region of origin). Two separate traditions have surfaced claiming that they were so moved by their encounter with Jesus that they either became Christians on their own or were quick to convert fully upon later encountering an Apostle of Jesus. The traditions claim that they were so strong in their beliefs that they willingly embraced martyrdom.

Chronicon of Dexter

One tradition gained popularity in Spain during the 17th century; it was found in a work called the Chronicon of Dexter. The work was ascribed to Flavius Lucius Dexterthe bishop of Barcelona, under Theodosius the Great. The tradition appears in the form of a simple martyrology reading, « In Arabia Felix, in the city of Sessania of the Adrumeti, the martyrdom of the holy kings, the three Magi, Gaspar, Balthassar, and Melchior who adored Christ. »^[56] First appearing in 1610, the Chronicon of Dexter was immensely popular along with the traditions it contained throughout the 17th century. Later, this was all brought into question when historians and the Catholic hierarchy in Rome declared the work a pious forgery.^[57]

Relics at Cologne

A competing tradition asserts that the Biblical Magi « were martyred for the faith, and that their bodies were first venerated at Constantinople; thence they were transferred to Milan in 344. It is certain that when Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor (Barbarossa) imposed his authority on Milan, the relics there were transferred to Cologne Cathedral, housed in the Shrine of the Three Kings, and are venerated there today. »^[56] The Milanese treated the fragments of masonry from their now-empty tomb as secondary relics and these were widely distributed around the region, including southern France, accounting for the frequency with which the Magi appear on chassereliquaries in Limoges enamel.^[58]

Tombs

There are several traditions on where the remains of the Magi are located, although none of the traditions is considered as an established fact or even as particularly likely by secular history. Marco Polo claimed that he was shown the three tombs of the Magi at Saveh south of Tehran in the 1270s:

In Persia is the city of Saba, from which the Three Magi set out and in this city they are buried, in three very large and beautiful monuments, side by side. And above them there is a square building, beautifully kept. The bodies are still entire, with hair and beard remaining.

— Marco Polo, Polo, Marco, The Book of the Million, book i.

Paul William Roberts provides some modern-day corroboration of this possibility in his book Journey of the Magi.^[59]

The Shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral, Germany, c. 1200.

A Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral, according to tradition, contains the bones of the Three Wise Men. Reputedly they were first discovered by Saint Helena on her famous pilgrimage to Palestineand the Holy Lands. She took the remains to the church of Hagia Sophiain Constantinople; they were later moved to Milan (some sources say by the city’s bishop, Eustorgius I^[60]), before being sent to their current resting place by the Holy Roman EmperorFrederick I in 1164. The Milanese celebrate their part in the tradition by holding a medieval costume parade every 6 January.

A version of the detailed elaboration familiar to us is laid out by the 14th century cleric John of Hildesheim‘s Historia Trium Regum (« History of the Three Kings »). In accounting for the presence in Cologne of their mummified relics, he begins with the journey of Helena, mother of Constantine I to Jerusalem, where she recovered the True Cross and other relics:

Journey of the Magi (top) and Adoration of the Magi (side) on a Limogeschamplevéchasse, c. 1200 (Musée de Cluny, Paris)

Queen Helen… began to think greatly of the bodies of these three kings, and she arrayed herself, and accompanied by many attendants, went into the Land of Ind… after she had found the bodies of Melchior, Balthazar, and Gaspar, Queen Helen put them into one chest and ornamented it with great riches, and she brought them into Constantinople… and laid them in a church that is called Saint Sophia.

Religious significance

The visit of the Magi is commemorated in most Western Christian churches by the observance of Epiphany, 6 January, which also serves as the feast of the three as saints. The Eastern Orthodox celebrate the visit of the Magi on 25 December.

Qur’an omits Matthew’s episode of the Magi. However, the Persian Muslim encyclopaedist al-Tabari, writing in the 9th century, gives the familiar symbolism of the gifts of the Magi. Al-Tabari gave his source for the information to be the later 7th century Perso-Yemenite writer Wahb ibn Munabbih.^[61]

Traditions

See also: Mystery Play of the Three Magic Kings

Holidays celebrating the arrival of the Magi traditionally recognise a distinction between the date of their arrival and the date of Jesus’ birth. The account given in the Gospel of Matthew does not state that they were present on the night of the birth; in the Gospel of Luke, Joseph and Mary remain in Bethlehem until it is time for Jesus’ dedication, in Jerusalem, and then return to their home in Nazareth.

Spanish customs

The Three Wise Men receiving children at a shopping centre in Spain. Letters with gift requests are left in the letterbox on the left-hand side.

Western Christianity celebrates the Magi on the day of Epiphany, January 6, the day immediately following the twelve days of Christmas, particularly in the Spanish-speaking parts of the world. In these areas, the Three Kings (« los Reyes Magos de Oriente« , and « Los Tres Reyes Magos » or simply « Los Reyes Magos« ) receive letters from children and so bring them gifts on the night before Epiphany. In Spain, each one of the Magi is supposed to represent one different continent, Europe (Melchior), Asia (Caspar) and Africa (Balthasar). According to the tradition, the Magi come from the Orient on their camels to visit the houses of all the children, much like Sinterklaasand Santa Claus with his reindeer elsewhere, they visit everyone in one night. In some areas, children prepare a drink for each of the Magi. It is also traditional to prepare food and drink for the camels, because this is the only night of the year when they eat.

In Spain, Argentina, Mexico, Paraguay and Uruguay, there is a long tradition for having the children receive presents by the three « Reyes Magos » on the night of January 5 (Epiphany Eve) or morning of January 6. Almost every Spanish city or town organises cabalgatas in the evening, in which the kings and their servantsparade and throw sweets to the children (and parents) in attendance. The cavalcade of the three kings in Alcoy claims to be the oldest in the world, having started in 1886. The Mystery Play of the Three Magic Kings is also presented on Epiphany Eve. There is also a « Roscón » (Spain) or « Rosca de Reyes » (Mexico) as explained below.

In the Philippines, beliefs concerning the Three Kings (Filipino: Tatlóng Haring Mago, lit. « Three Magi Kings »; shortened to Tatlóng Harì or SpanishTres Reyes) follows Hispanic influence, with the Feast of the Epiphany considered by many Filipinos as the traditional end of their Christmas season. The tradition of the Three Kings’ cabalgada is today done only in some areas, such as the old city of Intramuros in Manila, and the island of Marinduque. Another dying custom is children leaving shoes out on Epiphany Eve, so that they may receive sweets and money from the Three Kings. With the arrival of American culture in the early 20th century, the Three Kings as gift-givers have been largely replaced in urban areas by Santa Claus, and they only survive in the greeting « Happy Three Kings! » and the surnameTatlóngharì. The Three Kings are especially revered in Gapan, Nueva Ecija, where they are enshrined as patron saints in the National Shrine of Virgen La Divina Pastora.^{[citation needed]}

In Paraguay, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, children cut grass or greenery on January 5 and put it in a box under their bed for the Kings’ camels. Children receive gifts on January 6, which is called Día de Reyes, and is traditionally the day in which the Magi arrived bearing gifts for the Christ child. Christmas starts in December and ends in January after Epiphany, although in Puerto Rico there are eight more days of celebration (las octavitas).

Campaign for a real black Balthazar in Spain

In 2009 a campaign started in Spain over the fact that Balthazar is commonly played by a white person in blackface.^[62][63]

Central Europe

Sternsinger in Vienna, Austria.

Sternsinger – Christmas carolers in Sanok, Poland.

A tradition in Poland and German-speaking Catholic areas is the writing of the three kings’ initials (C+M+B or C M B, or K+M+B in those areas where Caspar is spelled Kaspar) above the main door of Catholic homes in chalk. This is a new year’s blessing for the occupants and the initials also are believed to also stand for « Christus mansionem benedicat » (« May/Let Christ Bless This House »).^[64] Depending on the city or town, this will be happen sometime between Christmas and the Epiphany, with most municipalities celebrating closer to the Epiphany. Also in Catholic parts of the German-speaking world, these markings are made by the « Sternsinger » (literally, « star singers« ) – a group of children dressed up as the magi.^[65] The Sternsinger carry a star representing the one followed by the biblical magi and sing Christmas carols as they go door to door, such as « Stern über Bethlehem« . An adult chaperones the group but stays in the background of the performance. After singing, the children write the three kings’ initials on the door frame in exchange for charitable donations. Each year, German and Austrian dioceses pick one charity towards which all Sternsinger donations nationwide will be contributed.^{[citation needed]} Traditionally, one child in the Sternsinger group is said to represent Baltasar from Africa and so, that child typically wears blackfacemakeup.^[66][67][68] Many Germans do not consider this to be racist because it is not intended to be a negative portrayal of a black person, but rather, a « realistic » or « traditional » portrayal of one.^[69] The dialogue surrounding the politics of traditions involving blackface is not as developed as in Spain or the Netherlands.^{[citation needed]}In the past, photographs of German politicians together with children in blackface have caused a stir in English-language press.^[70][71] Moreover, Afro-Germans have written that this use of blackface is a missed opportunity to be truly inclusive of Afro-Germans in German-speaking communities and contribute to the equation of « blackness » with « foreignness » and « otherness » in German culture.^[72]

In 2010 the day of Epiphany, January 6, was made a holiday in Poland and thus a pre-war tradition was revived.^[73] Since 2011, celebrations with biblical costuming have taken place throughout the country. For example, in Warsaw there are processions from Plac Zamkowy down Krakowskie Przedmieście to Plac Piłsudskiego.^[74]

Roscón de Reyes

Main article: Roscón de Reyes

In Spain and in Portugal (where it is called Bolo-rei^[75]), the cake, which is ring-shaped, is most commonly bought, not baked, and it contains both a small figurine of one of the Magi (or another surprise depending on the region) and an actual dry broad bean. The one who gets the figurine is « crowned » (with a crown made of cardboard or paper), but whoever gets the bean has to pay the value of the cake to the person who originally bought it. In Mexico they also have the same ring-shaped cake Rosca de Reyes (Kings Bagel or Thread) with figurines inside it. Whoever gets a figurine is supposed to organize and be the host of the family celebration for the Candelaria feast on February 2.

In France and Belgium, a cake containing a small figure of the baby Jesus, known as the « broad bean », is shared within the family. Whoever gets the bean is crowned king for the remainder of the holiday and wears a cardboard crown purchased with the cake. A similar practice is common in many areas of Switzerland, but the figurine is a miniature king. The practice is known as tirer les Rois (Drawing the Kings). A queen is sometimes also chosen.

In New Orleans, Louisiana, parts of southern Texas, and surrounding regions, a similar ring-shaped cake known as a « King Cake » traditionally becomes available in bakeries from Epiphany to Mardi Gras. The baby Jesus figurine is inserted into the cake from underneath, and the person who gets the slice with the figurine is expected to buy or bake the next King Cake. There is wide variation among the types of pastry that may be called a King Cake, but most are a baked cinnamon-flavoured twisted dough with thin frosting and additional sugar on top in the traditional Mardi Gras colours of gold, green and purple. To prevent accidental injury or choking, the baby Jesus figurine is frequently not inserted into the cake at the bakery, but included in the packaging for optional use by the buyer to insert it themselves. Mardi Gras-style beads and doubloons may be included as well.

In art

Adoration of the Magi

Adoration of the Magi, tondo by Fra Angelico and Filippo Lippi, c. 1450 (NGA, Washington)

The Magi most frequently appear in European art in the Adoration of the Magi; less often in the Journey of the Magi has been a popular subject in art, and topos, and other scenes such as the Magi before Herod and the Dream of the Magi also appear in the Middle Ages. In Byzantine art they are depicted as Persians, wearing trousers and phrygian caps. Crowns appear from the 10th century. Despite being saints, they are very often shown without halos, perhaps to avoid distracting attention from either their crowns or the halos of the Holy Family. Sometimes only the lead king, kneeling to Christ, has a halo the two others lack, probably indicating that the two behind had not yet performed the act of worship that would ensure their status as saints. Medieval artists also allegorised the theme to represent the three ages of man. Beginning in the 12th century, and very often by the 15th, the Kings also represent the three parts of the known (pre-Columbian) world in Western art, especially in Northern Europe. Balthasar is thus represented as a young African or Moor and Caspar may be depicted with distinctly Oriental features.

An early Anglo-Saxon depiction survives on the Franks Casket (early 7th century, whalebone carving), the only Christian scene, which is combined with pagan and classical imagery. In its composition it follows the oriental style, which renders a courtly scene, with the Virgin and Christ facing the spectator, while the Magi devoutly approach from the (left) side. Even amongst non-Christians who had heard of the Christian story of the Magi, the motif was quite popular, since the Magi had endured a long journey and were generous. Instead of an angel, the picture places a swan-like bird, perhaps interpretable as the hero’s fylgja (a protecting spirit, and shapeshifter).

Austrian artist Gottfried Helnwein depicted a more controversial tableau in his painting, Epiphany I: Adoration of the Magi (1996). Intended to represent the « many connections between the Third Reich and the Christian churches in Austria and Germany »,^[76] Nazi officers in uniform stand around an Aryan Madonna. The Christtoddler who stands on Mary’s lap resembles Adolf Hitler.^[77]

More generally they appear in popular Nativity scenes and other Christmasdecorations that have their origins in the Neapolitan variety of the Italian presepio or Nativity crèche.

See also

• Christianity portal
• Christmas portal

Astronomy Christian views on astrology List of names for the biblical nameless

Mystery play Saint Caspar Saint Nicholas

Notes

1. Jump up^ Greek: μάγοι, magoi

References

1. Jump up^ Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Nashville, Tennessee: Holman Bible Publishers. 2003. p. 1066. ISBN 0-8054-2836-4.
2. Jump up^ Matthew 2:1-2
3. Jump up^ Geza Vermes, The Nativity: History and Legend, London, Penguin, 2006, p. 22
4. Jump up^ Metzger, 24 [80]
5. Jump up^ « Magi ». Encyclopædia Britannica.
6. Jump up^ s.v. magi. Oxford English Dictionary (Third ed.). April 1910.
7. Jump up^ Schiller, 114
8. Jump up^ « Matthew 2 ». Bible Gateway.
9. Jump up^ Schiller, I, 96; The New Testament by Bart D. Ehrman 1999 ISBN 0-19-512639-4 p. 109
10. Jump up^ Oxford English Dictionary, Third edition, April 2010, s.v. magus
11. Jump up^ Mary Boyce, A History of Zoroastrianism: The Early Period (Brill, 1989, 2nd ed.), vol. 1, pp. 10–11 online; Mary Boyce, Zoroastrians: their religious beliefs and practices(Routledge, 2001, 2nd ed.), p. 48 online; Linda Murray, The Oxford companion to Christian art and architecture (Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 293; Stephen Mitchell, A history of the later Roman Empire, AD 284–641: the transformation of the ancient world (Wiley–Blackwell, 2007), p. 387 online.
12. Jump up^ Psalm 72:11 (King James Version)
13. Jump up^ « Magi ». Encyclopædia Britannica.
14. Jump up^ s.v. magi. Oxford English Dictionary (Third ed.). April 1910.
15. Jump up^ Drum, Walter. « Magi. » The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 24 Dec. 2016.
16. Jump up^ Ashby, Chad. « Magi, Wise Men, or Kings? It’s Complicated. » Christianity Today, December 16, 2016.
17. Jump up^ Calvin, John. Calvin’s Commentaries, Vol. 31: Matthew, Mark and Luke, Part I, tr. by John King. Retrieved 2010-05-15. Quote from Commentary on Matthew 2:1–6
18. Jump up^ See Metzger, 23–29 for a lengthy account
19. Jump up^ « Melchior ». Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
20. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Excerpta Latina Barbari, page 51B: « At that time in the reign of Augustus, on 1st January the Magi brought him gifts and worshipped him. The names of the Magi were Bithisarea, Melichior and Gathaspa. ».
21. Jump up^ « Caspar or Gaspar ». Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
22. Jump up^ Hugo Kehrer (1908), Vol. I, p. 70 Online version Kehrer’s commentary: « Die Form Jaspar stammt aus Frankreich. Sie findet sich im niederrheinisch-kölnischen Dialekt und im Englischen. Note: O. Baist page 455; J.P.Migne; Dictionnaire des apocryphes, Paris 1856, vol I, p. 1023. … So in La Vie de St. Gilles; Li Roumans de Berte: Melcior, Jaspar, Baltazar; Rymbybel des Jakob von Märlant: Balthasar, Melchyor, Jaspas; ein altenglisches Gedicht des dreizehnten oder vierzehnten Jahrhunderts (13th century!!) Note: C.Horstmann, Altenglische Legenden, Paderborn 1875, p. 95; … La Vie des trois Roys Jaspar Melchior et Balthasar, Paris 1498 »–>]
23. Jump up^ « Balthazar ». Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
24. Jump up^ « Magi (biblical figures) – Encyclopædia Britannica ». Britannica.com. Retrieved 2013-07-04.
25. Jump up^ Hugo Kehrer (1908), Die Heiligen Drei Könige in Literatur und Kunst (reprinted in 1976). Vol. I, p. 66. Online version. Quote from the Latin chronicle: primus fuisse dicitur Melchior, senex et canus, barba prolixa et capillis, tunica hyacinthina, sagoque mileno, et calceamentis hyacinthino et albo mixto opere, pro mitrario variae compositionis indutus: aurum obtulit regi Domino. (« the first [magus], named Melchior, was an old white-haired man, with a full beard and hair, […]: the king gave gold to our Lord. ») Secundum, nomine Caspar, juvenis imberbis, rubicundus, mylenica tunica, sago rubeo, calceamentis hyacinthinis vestitus: thure quasi Deo oblatione digna, Deum honorabat. (« The second, with name Caspar, a beardless boy, [… gave incense]. ») Tertius, fuscus, integre barbatus, Balthasar nomine, habens tunicam rubeam, albo vario, calceamentis inimicis amicus: per myrrham filium hominis moriturum professus est. (« The third one, dark-haired, with a full beard, named Balthasar, [… gave myrhh]. ») Omnia autem vestimenta eorum Syriaca sunt. (« The clothes of all [three] were Syrian-style. »)
26. Jump up^ Collectanea et Flores in Patrologia Latina. XCIV, page 541(D) Online version
27. Jump up^ Ernst Herzfeld, Archaeological History of Iran, London, Oxford University Press for the British Academy, 1935, p. 63.
28. Jump up^ Witold Witakowski, « The Magi in Syriac Tradition », in George A. Kiraz (ed.), Malphono w-Rabo d-Malphone: Studies in Honor of Sebastian P. Brock, Piscataway (NJ), Gorgias Press, 2008, pp. 809–844.
29. Jump up^ Acta Sanctorum, May, I, 1780.
30. Jump up^ Concerning The Magi And Their Names.
31. Jump up^ Hattaway, Paul; Brother Yun; Yongze, Peter Xu; and Wang, Enoch. Back to Jerusalem. (Authentic Publishing, 2003). retrieved May 2007
32. Jump up^ Axworthy, Michael (2008). A History of Iran. Basic Books. p. 31–43.
33. Jump up^ Hone, William (1890 (4th edit); 1820 (1st edition)). « The Apocryphal Books of the New Testament« . Archive.org. Gebbie & Co., Publishers, Philadelphia. See: Retrieved 26 January 2017.
34. Jump up^ Nersessian, Vrej (2001). The Bible in the Armenian Tradition. Getty. ISBN 978-0-89236-640-8.^{[page needed]}
35. Jump up^ Historia Trium Regum (History of the Three Kings) by John of Hildesheim (1364–1375)^[specify]
36. Jump up^ Brock, Sebastian (1982). « Christians in the Sasanian Empire: A Case of Divided Loyalties ». In Mews, Stuart. Religion and National Identity. Studies in Church History, 18. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 1–19. ISBN 978-0-631-18060-9.
37. Jump up^ Ugo Monneret de Villard, Le Leggende orientali sui Magi evangelici, Citta del Vaticano, Biblioteca apostolica vaticana, 1952.^{[page needed]}
38. Jump up^ Hultgård, Anders (1998). « The Magi and the Star—the Persian Background in Texts and Iconography ». In Schalk, Peter; Stausberg, Michael. ‘Being Religious and Living through the Eyes’: Studies in Religious Iconography and Iconology: A Celebratory Publication in Honour of Professor Jan Bergman. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis: Historia Religionum, 14. Uppsala, Almqvist & Wiksell International. pp. 215–25. ISBN 978-91-554-4199-9.
39. Jump up^ A. Dietrich, « Die Weisen aus dem Morgenlande », Zeitschrift für die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, Bd. III, 1902, p. 1 14; cited in J. Duchesne-Guillemin, « Die Drei Weisen aus dem Morgenlande und die Anbetung der Zeit », Antaios, Vol. VII, 1965, pp. 234–252, 245; cited in Mary Boyce and Frantz Genet, A History of Zoroastrianism, Leiden, Brill, 1991, p. 453, n. 449.
40. Jump up^ Herzfeld, Ernst (1935). Archaeological History of Iran. Schweich Lectures of the British Academy. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 65–6. OCLC 651983281.
41. Jump up^ In regno Tarsae sunt tres provinciae, quarum dominatores se reges faciunt appellari. Homines illius patriae nominant Iogour. Semper idola coluerunt, et adhuc colunt omnes, praeter decem cognationes illorum regum, qui per demonstrationum stellae venerunt adorare nativitatem in Bethlehem Judae. Et adhuc multi magni et nobiles inveniunt inter Tartaros de cognatione illa, qui tenent firmiter fidem Christi. (In the kingdom of Tarsis there are three provinces, whose rulers have called themselves kings. the men of that country are called Uighours. They always worshipped idols, and they all still worship them except for the ten families of those Kings who from the appearance of the Star came to adore the Nativity in Bethlehem of Judah. And there are still many of the great and noble of those families found among the Tartars who hold firmly to the faith of Christ): Wesley Roberton Long (ed.), La flor de las ystorias de Orient by Hethum prince of Khorghos, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1934, pp. 53, 111, 115; cited in Ugo Monneret de Villard, Le Leggende orientali sui Magi evangelici, Citta del Vaticano, Biblioteca apostolica vaticana, 1952, p. 161. Hayton, Haithoni Armeni ordinis Praemonstratenis de Tartaris liber, Simon Grynaeus Johannes Huttichius, Novus orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum, Basel, 1532, caput ii, De Regno Tarsae, p. 420 “The people of these countrees be named Iobgontans [Uighurs], and at all tymes they haue been idolaters, and so they contynue to this present day, save the nacion or kynred of those thre kynges which came to worshyp Our Lorde Ihesu Chryst at his natiuyte by demonstracyon of the sterre. And the linage of the same thre kynges be yet vnto this day great lordes about the lande of Tartary, which ferme and stedfastly beleue in the fayth of Christ”: Hetoum, A Lytell Cronycle: Richard Pynson’s Translation (c. 1520) of La Fleur des Histoires de la Terre d’Orient, edited by Glenn Burger, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1988, Of the realme of Tharsey, p. 8, lines 29–38.
42. Jump up^ Friedrich Zarncke, « Der Priester Johannes », Abhandlungen der philologisch-historischen Classe der Koeniglichen Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Leipzig, Band VII, Heft 8, 1879, S.826–1028; Band I, Heft 8, 1883, S. 1–186), re-published in one volume by G. Olms, Hildesheim, 1980.
43. Jump up^ Letter of Sempad the Constable to the King and Queen of Cyprus, 1243, in Henry Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, Oxford, Hakluyt society, 1866, Vol.I, pp.cxxvii, 262-3.
44. Jump up^ Fertur enim iste de antiqua progenie illorum, quorum in Evangelio mentio fit, esse Magorum, eisdemque, quibus et isti, gentibus imperans, tanta gloria et habundancia frui, ut non nisi sceptro smaragdino uti dicatur (It is reported that he is the descendant of those Magi of old who are mentioned in the Gospel, and to rule over the same nations as they did, enjoying such glory and prosperity that he uses no sceptre but one of emerald). Otto von Freising, Historia de Duabus Civitatibus, 1146, in Friedrich Zarncke, Der Priester Johannes, Leipzig, Hirzel, 1879 (repr. Georg Olms Verlag, Hildesheim and New York, 1980, p. 848; Adolf Hofmeister, Ottonis Episcopi Frisingensis Chronica; sive, Historia de Duabus Civitatibus, Hannover. 1912, p. 366.
45. Jump up^ « Matthew 2; – Passage Lookup – New International Version – UK ». BibleGateway.com. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
46. Jump up^ Penny, 401
47. Jump up^ Schiller, I, 113
48. Jump up^ Origen, Contra Celsum I.60.
49. Jump up^ « Franks Casket – F – panel (Front) – Pictures: The Magi ».
50. Jump up^ Page, Sophie, »Magic In Medieval Manuscripts« . University of Toronto Press, 2004. 64 pages. ISBN 0-8020-3797-6, p. 18.
51. Jump up^ Gustav-Adolf Schoener and Shane Denson [Translator], « Astrology: Between Religion and the Empirical« .
52. Jump up^ « Frankincense: festive pharmacognosy Archived 2007-06-15 at the Wayback Machine.« . Pharmaceutical journal. Vol 271, 2003. pharmj.com.
53. Jump up^ August Friedrich von Pauly et al., Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft, Vol. XVI, 1, Stuttgart, 1933, col.1145; Leonardo Olschki, « The Wise Men of the East in Oriental Traditions », Semitic and Oriental Studies, University of California Publications in Semitic Philology, Vol.11, 1951, pp. 375 395, p. 380, n. 46; cited in Mary Boyce and Frantz Genet, A History of Zoroastrianism, Leiden, Brill, 1991, p. 450, n. 438.
54. Jump up^ Lambert, John Chisholm, in James Hastings (ed.) A Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels. Page 100.
55. Jump up^ « Gifts of the Magi delivered to Minsk for worship ». ITAR-TASS. 17 January 2014. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
56. ^ Jump up to:^a b Andrew Edward Breen (February 1, 1908). A Harmonized Exposition of the Four Gospels, Volume 1. Rochester, New York.
57. Jump up^ R. R. Madden, M.D. (1864). « On certain Literary Frauds and Forgeries in Spain And Italy ». Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Vol 8. Dublin.
58. Jump up^ Gauthier M-M. and François G., Émaux méridionaux: Catalogue international de l’oeuvre de Limoges – Tome I: Epoque romane, p. 11, Paris 1987
59. Jump up^ Journey of the Magi, Paul William Roberts, (2006) Tauris Parke Paperbacks, pgs 27-38
60. Jump up^ « Sant’ Eustorgio I di Milano ». Santiebeati.it. 2001-09-09. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
61. Jump up^ « We, three kings of Orient were ». Saudiaramcoworld.com. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
62. Jump up^ News about blackface Balthazars (in Spanish)
63. Jump up^ Vídeo demanding true black Baltazars (in Spanish)
64. Jump up^ « Christus Mansionem Benedicat « Catholic Sensibility ». Catholicsensibility.wordpress.com. 2006-01-05. Retrieved 2012-01-12.
65. Jump up^ « Duden | Sternsingen | Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition » (in German). Duden.de. 2012-10-30. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
66. Jump up^ Name bedeutet: Gott schütze sein Leben (babylon.-hebr.) (2007-03-25). « Balthasar – Ökumenisches Heiligenlexikon ». Heiligenlexikon.de. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
67. Jump up^ « Catholic Encyclopedia: Baltasar ». Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
68. Jump up^ « Blackface! Around the World ». Black-face.com. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
69. Jump up^ User-Kommentar von Dieter Schmeer. « Und die Sternsinger? – Leser-Kommentar – FOCUS Online » (in German). Focus.de. Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
70. Jump up^ « German Chancellor Angela Merkel poses with children in blackface for Three King’s Day celebration ». NY Daily News. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
71. Jump up^ 04 Jan 2013 (2013-01-04). « Angela Merkel pictured with blacked-up children ». Telegraph. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
72. Jump up^ Ogdan Ücgür (2012-01-06). « Sternsinger: Schwarzes Gesicht und weisse Hände ». M-Media. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
73. Jump up^ Trzech Króli już świętem państwowym (Three Kings already a public holidayArchived 2016-11-21 at the Wayback Machine.
74. Jump up^ « Orszak Trzech Króli | Warszawa ». Orszak.org. 2013-01-01. Archived from the original on 2013-04-15. Retrieved 2013-07-04.
75. Jump up^ À mesa com o tradicional Bolo-rei – Uma instituição nacional Archived 2010-06-01 at the Wayback Machine. Matosinhos Hoje, 6 January 2010.
76. Jump up^ Baker, Kenneth (9 August 2004). « Dark and detached, the art of Gottfried Helnwein demands a response ». San Francisco Chronicle. accessed with EBSCOHost.
77. Jump up^ Denver Art Museum, Radar, Selections from the Collection of Vicki and Kent Logan, Gwen F. Chanzit, 2006 [1]

Bibliography

• Giffords, Gloria Fraser, Sanctuaries of Earth, Stone, and Light: The Churches of Northern New Spain, 1530–1821, 2007, University of Arizona Press, ISBN0816525897, 9780816525898, google books
• Metzger, Bruce, New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic, Volume 10, 1980, BRILL, ISBN9004061630, 9789004061637, google books
• Penny, Nicholas, National Gallery Catalogues (new series): The Sixteenth Century Italian Paintings, Volume II, Venice 1540–1600, 2008, National Gallery Publications Ltd, ISBN1857099133
• Schiller, Gertud, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I, 1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, ISBN0853312702

Further reading

• Albright, W. F., and C. S. Mann. « Matthew. » The Anchor Bible Series. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1971.
• Becker, Alfred: Franks Casket. Zu den Bildern und Inschriften des Runenkästchens von Auzon (Regensburg, 1973) pp. 125–142, Ikonographie der Magierbilder, Inschriften.
• Benecke, P. V. M. (1900). « Magi ». In James Hastings. A Dictionary of the Bible. III. pp. 203–206.
• Brown, Raymond E.The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke. London: G. Chapman, 1977.
• Clarke, Howard W. The Gospel of Matthew and its Readers: A Historical Introduction to the First Gospel. Bloomington.
• Chrysostom, John. « Homilies on Matthew: Homily VI ». c. 4th century.
• France, R. T.The Gospel According to Matthew: An Introduction and Commentary. Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1985.
• Gundry, Robert H.Matthew: A Commentary on his Literary and Theological Art.Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982.
• Hill, David. The Gospel of Matthew. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981
• Lambert, John Chisholm, A Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels. Page 97–101.
• Levine, Amy-Jill. « Matthew. » Women’s Bible Commentary. Carol A. Newsom and Sharon H. Ringe, eds. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998.
• Molnar, Michael R., The Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of the Magi. Rutgers University Press, 1999. 187 pages. ISBN0-8135-2701-5
• Powell, Mark Allan. « The Magi as Wise Men: Re-examining a Basic Supposition. » New Testament Studies. Vol. 46, 2000.
• Schweizer, Eduard. The Good News According to Matthew. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975.
• Trexler, Richard C. Journey of the Magi: Meanings in History of a Christian Story. Princeton University Press, 1997.
• Watson, Richard, A Biblical and Theological Dictionary, Page 608–611.
• Hegedus, Tim (2003). « The Magi and the Star in the Gospel of Matthew and Early Christian Tradition ». Laval théologique et philosophique. 59 (1): 81–95. doi:10.7202/000790ar.

• Mark Rose, « The Three Kings & the Star »: the Cologne reliquary and the BBC popular documentary
• Alfred Becker, Franks Casket
• Caroline Stone, « We Three Kings of Orient Were »
• MagiCatholic Encyclopedia
• « Procession of the Three Kings in Valencia »

 

https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magi_(Bibbia)

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Statue-menhir de Filitosa, Corse

Giacobbe Giusti,  Statue-menhir de Filitosa, Corse

Filitosa (Corse-du-Sud, France) – L’oppidum.

Giacobbe Giusti,  Statue-menhir de Filitosa, Corse

 

Giacobbe Giusti,  Statue-menhir de Filitosa, Corse

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti,  Statue-menhir de Filitosa, Corse
Filitosa V
Localisation
Pays	France
Géolocalisation sur la carte : Corse Filitosa (Voir situation sur carte : France)

Filitosa est un site préhistorique de Corseoccupé à partir du néolithique ancien jusqu’à l’antiquité. Il est principalement représentatif de l’âge du bronze en corse. Il est reconnu dans toute la corse et au niveau international pour sa spectaculaire concentration en statues menhirs comprenant de nombreux détails. En 2017, l’olivier millénaire (1 200 ans), entouré des 5 statues menhirs dans la vallée de Filitosa, a été classé arbre remarquable de France.

Situation

Le site de Filitosa, dans la vallée du Taravo, sur la route D57, est implanté à l’ouest de la localité (et sur le territoire de la commune) de Sollacaro, au nord de Propriano.

Histoire

Le site a été découvert en 1946 par le propriétaire des lieux, Charles-Antoine Cesari¹. Les fouilles ont commencé en 1954 sous la direction de Roger Grosjean. Les menhirs, représentant des personnages armés, et les poteries trouvés sur place datent du 33ème siècle av J.-C. Des menhirs de deux ou trois mètres de haut ont été érigés vers les années 1490 av. J.-C..

Site

Les vestiges découverts sur le site ont été mis en valeur par l’archéologue permettant au visiteur une projection mentale dans la préhistoire. Un numéro a été attribué à chacune des statues-menhirs retrouvées. Filitosa V² est la plus grande et celle qui montre l’équipement le plus important et le plus précisément sculpté (armes : longue épée et poignard).

L’entrée du site est payante et permet d’accéder à différentes zones :

1. Filitosa V dont les « attributs » sculptés sont les plus présents au moment du zénith grâce aux ombres projetées. Elle est La seule statue menhir de corse comportant à la fois une épée et un poignard,
2. L’entrée du village par l’éperon barré par des roches en granit formant une enceinte cyclopéenne,
3. un oppidum comportant des vestiges de village abris sous roche monuments Torréen cultuel et de stockage ainsi que de nombreuses statues menhirs,
4. alignement de 5 statues menhirs en arc situé en contrebas de l’éperon rocheux entourant l’olivier millénaire classé arbre remarquable de France,
5. La carrière où était prélevé le granit nécessaire à la construction des maisons, façonnage des menhirs et autres monuments Torréen.

Jusqu’au bout de l’oppidum, des bornes audio diffusent à la demande par pression sur un bouton un commentaire en quatre langues au choix : français, anglais, allemand, italien.

Giacobbe Giusti,  Statue-menhir de Filitosa, France

• 

  Filitosa V et sa borne audio.

• 

  Cinq statues en arc de cercle autour de l’Olivier millénaire.

  Giacobbe Giusti,  Statue-menhir de Filitosa, Corse, France

• 

  Tête de La statue-menhir Filitosa IX.

• 

  Statue-menhir de Filitosa.

Accès

Le Site préhistorique est accessible en voiture en empruntant la RN196:

• depuis Ajaccio en passant par Petreto Bicchisano puis Sollacaro (RN196 puis D302 puis D57)
• depuis Propriano en passant par Olmeto Plage (RN196 puis D157 puis D57)

Dates et horaires d’ouverture

Le site est ouvert du 1^er avril au 31 octobre 7j/7 de 9h au coucher du soleil.

Prévoir 50 minutes de visite (terrain facile d’accès, promenade à faire seul, en couple et même en famille).

Notes et références

1. ↑ « Français, quelles sont vos racines? – Celui qui croyait aux pierres » [archive], sur L’Express, 3 août 1995
2. ↑ Franck Léandri, Les mégalithes de Corse, Editions Jean-paul Gisserot, 2000(ISBN 2877475182, lire en ligne [archive])

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filitosa

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA della ROBBIA: Madonna with Child and Angels (Louvre Museum)

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA della ROBBIA: Madonna with Child and Angels (Louvre Museum)

Madonna with Child and Angels(Louvre Museum).

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA della ROBBIA: Madonna with Child and Angels (Louvre Museum)

Madonna with Child and Angels(Louvre Museum).

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA della ROBBIA: Madonna with Child and Angels (Louvre Museum)

Andrea della Robbia by Andrea del Sarto

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA della ROBBIA: Madonna with Child and Angels (Louvre Museum)

Madonna with Child and Angels(Louvre Museum).

Andrea della Robbia (October 24, 1435 – August 4, 1525) was an Italian Renaissance sculptor, especially in ceramics.

Biography

Born in Florence, Robbia was the son of Marco della Robbia, whose brother, Luca della Robbia, popularized the use of glazed terra-cotta for sculpture. Andrea became Luca’s pupil, and was the most important artist of ceramic glaze of the times.

He carried on the production of the enamelled reliefs on a much larger scale than his uncle had ever done; he also extended its application to various architectural uses, such as friezes and to the making of lavabos, fountains and large retables. One variety of method was introduced in his enamelled work. Sometimes he omitted the enamel on the face and hands of his figures, especially in those cases where he had treated the heads in a realistic manner; as, for example, in the tympanum relief of the meeting of St Domenic and St Francis in the loggia of the Florentine hospital of San Paolo, a design suggested by a fresco of Fra Angelico‘s in the cloister of St Mark’s.

One of the most remarkable works by Andrea is the series of medallions with reliefs of the Infant Jesus in white on a blue ground set on the front of the foundling hospital in Florence. These child-figures are modelled with skill and variety, no two being alike. Andrea also produced, for guilds and private persons, a large number of reliefs of the Madonna and Child varied with much invention. These are frequently framed with realistic yet decorative garlands of fruit and flowers painted with coloured enamels, while the main relief is left white. The hospital of San Paolo, near Santa Maria Novella, has also a number of fine medallions with reliefs of saints, two of Christ Healing the Sick, and two fine portraits, under which are white plaques inscribed « DALL ANNO 1451 ALL ANNO 1495 ». The first of these dates is the year when the hospital was rebuilt owing to a papal brief sent to the archbishop of Florence.

Arezzo possesses a number of enamelled works by Andrea and his sons: a retable in the cathedral with God holding the Crucified Christ, surrounded by angels, and below, kneeling figures of San Donato and San Bernardino; also in the chapel of the Campo Santo is a relief of the Madonna and Child with four saints at the sides. In Santa Maria in Grado is a noble retable with angels holding a crown over a standing figure of the Madonna; a number of small figures of worshippers take refuge in the folds of the Virgin’s mantle, a favourite motive for sculpture dedicated by guilds or other corporate bodies. Perhaps the finest collection of works of this class is at La Verna, not far from Arezzo.^[1] The best of these, three large retables with representations of the Annunciation, the Crucifixion, and the Madonna giving her Girdle to St Thomas, are probably the work of Andrea himself, the others being by his sons.

In 1489 Andrea made a relief of the Virgin and two Angels, now over the archive-room door in the Florentine Opera del Duomo; for this he was paid twenty gold florins.^[2] In the same year he modelled the tympanum relief over a door of Prato cathedral, with a half length figure of the Madonna between St Stephen and St Lawrence, surrounded by a frame of angels’ heads. In 1491 he was still working at Prato, where many of his best reliefs still exist. A bust of San Lino exists over the side door of Volterra Cathedral, which is attributed to Andrea. Other late works of known date are a magnificent bust of the Protonotary Almadiano, made in 1510 for the church of San Giovanni de’ Fiorentini at Viterbo, and a medallion of the Virgin in Glory, surrounded by angels, made in 1505 for Pistoia cathedral. The latest work attributed to Andrea, though apparently only a workshop production of 1515, is a relief representing the Adoration of the Magi, made for a little church, St Maria, in Pian di Mugnone (it), near Florence.

His workshop was carried on by his son Giovanni della Robbia after his death.

 

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Louvre museum

Giacobbe Giusti, Louvre museum

The pyramid in the cour Napoléon

 

The Louvre (US: /ˈluːv(rə)/),^[2] or the Louvre Museum (French: Musée du Louvre [myze dy luvʁ] ( listen)), is the world’s largest art museum and a historic monument in Paris, France.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_della_Robbia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre

https://www.louvre.fr/en/homepage

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, PERUGINO: San Pietro Polyptych

Giacobbe Giusti, PERUGINO: San Pietro Polyptych

 

Giacobbe Giusti, PERUGINO: San Pietro Polyptych

 

Giacobbe Giusti, PERUGINO: San Pietro Polyptych

Giacobbe Giusti, PERUGINO: San Pietro Polyptych
Artist	Perugino
Year	c. 1496 – 1500
Medium	Oil on panel
Location	Various

The San Pietro Polyptych (Italian: Polittico di San Pietro) is a polyptych by Italian Renaissance master Perugino, painted around 1496–1500. The panel are now in different locations: the lunette and the central panel, depicting the Ascension of Christ, are in the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon, France.

Description

The polyptych had been originally commissioned for the Abbey of San Pietro at Perugia, the contract having been signed by Perugino on 8 March 1495. It included a large altarpiece and several panels, within a wooden frame by Domenico da Verona. The altarpiece, depicting the Ascension of Christ, was to have a lunette with the God in Glory between Angels above it, while the predella had not been exactly defined. The payment were 500 golden ducats, and no more than two years and a half were given to complete the work.

The panels were painted between January 1496 and the end of 1499, and the work was solemnly inaugurated on 13 January 1500. Contemporary art historian Giorgio Vasari considered the predella Perugino’s best work in his home city.

In 1591 the church’s choir was radically restored, and the altar had to be dismantled. After the religious suppressions of 1797, the work was acquired by the French, and was divided into several French museums, although several panels remained in Perugia or went to Papal collections in Rome.

Description

The cymatium was separated by the main panel by a frame, in the same way of the Vallombrosa Altarpiece. At the sides were two columns which supported the frame arch and which, at the bases, were decorated by three small panels with Saints, sharing the same background.

The polyptych included the following panels:

• Ascension (280 × 216 cm), now at the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon. This work was almost entirely copied by Perugino and his workshop for the later Sansepolcro Altarpiece. The Vallombrosa Altarpiece also used a similar composition, in turn inspired by the now lost Assumption in the Sistine Chapel.
• God in Glory lunette (114 × 230 cm), now at the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon. It represents God in a cloud in the sky, surrounded by cherubims and seraphims, and two symmetrical angels at the side.
• Tondoes of Jeremy and Isaiah (both 127 cm in diameter), now at the Musée des beaux-arts of Nantes
• Adoration of the Magi (predella panel, 32 × 59 cm). Now at the Musée des Beaux-Arts of Rouen.
• Baptism of Christ (predella panel, 32 × 59 cm). Now at the Musée des Beaux-Arts of Rouen.
• Resurrection (predella panel, 32 × 59 cm). Now at the Musée des Beaux-Arts of Rouen.
• St. Herculanus and St. Constantius (predella panels, 32 × 38 cm). Now at the Galleria Nazionale dell’Umbria at Perugia.
• St. Maurus, St. Peter ad Vincula, St. Scholastica, St. Benedict, St. Flavia and St. Placidus (panels at the columns base, various sizes). Now at the Galleria Nazionale dell’Umbria at Perugia and the Pinacoteca Vaticana in Rome.

Polittico di San Pietro (Perugino).

• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon
• Garibaldi, Vittoria (2007). « Perugino ». Pittori del Rinascimento. Florence: Scala.

    Giacobbe Giusti, PERUGINO: Polyptyque de San Pietro

Reconstitution

Artiste	Le Pérugin
Date	1496 – 1500
Type	huile sur bois
Dimensions (H × L)	394 × 230 cm
Mouvement	Renaissance italienne
Localisation	Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon(France)

    Giacobbe Giusti, PERUGINO: Polyptyque de San Pietro

Panneau central et sa cimaise au mba de Lyon.

Le Polyptyque de San Pietro est un ensemble de peintures religieuses, du Pérugin, datant de 1496 – 1500 environ. Du polyptyque dispersé, seule la lunette avec le panneau central de L’Ascension du Christ en présence de la Vierge et des apôtres sont rassemblés au Musée des beaux-arts de Lyon, tandis que le reste des quinze éléments est éparpillé dans divers musées européens.

 

Histoire

Le polyptyque de San Pietro était destinée initialement à la Basilica di San Pietro à Pérouse.

Le contrat a été signé entre Le Pérugin et l’abbé Lattanzio di Giuliano da Firenze le 8 mars 1495pour la somme 500 ducats d’or et un délai d’exécution de deux ans et demi maximum. L’iconographie et les matériaux à utiliser sont précisément décrits et l’ensemble, comprenant à l’origine quinze éléments, fut réalisé entre janvier 1496 et la fin de 1499, avec une inauguration le 13 janvier 1500.

En 1591, à la suite de la restructuration du chœur de la basilique, la corniche de soutien étant enlevée, les divers panneaux furent séparés et répartis dans diverses pièces de l’église et de la sacristie.

En 1797, l’œuvre fut réquisitionnée par les Français à la suite du traité de Tolentino, et la cimaise et le panneau central finirent au Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon.

Thème principal

Ascension du Christ surmonté de Dieu le Père bénissant parmi les anges réunissant ainsi les protagonistes nécessaires à la scène de la montée du Christ aux cieux.

Description

La cimaise était séparée du panneau principal par une corniche identique à celle du retable de Vallombrosa. Sur les côtés deux colonnes soutenaient le couronnement à arc de la corniche sur les bases de laquelle, en forme de parallélépipède, se trouvaient trois panneaux représentant des saints. Ces petits panneaux étaient disposées sur un même arrière-plan (« sfondo »), une sorte de parapet en marbre sur fond bleu.

Les deux saints protecteurs de la ville de Pérouse, Herculanus et Constantius, étaient représentés sur les côtés des trois tablettes de la prédelle avec les Scènes de Vie du Christ.

Composition

Panneaux principaux et tondi

• L’Ascension du Christ en présence de la Vierge et des apôtres, 280 × 216 cm, Musée des beaux-arts, Lyon
• Dieu le Père bénissant parmi les anges, cimaise, 114 × 230 cm, Musée des beaux-arts, Lyon
• Tondo du prophète David ou Jérémie, diamètre 127 cm, Musée des beaux-arts, Nantes,
• Tondo du prophète Isaïe, diamètre 127 cm, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Nantes.

Panneaux de la prédelle 

• Adoration des mages, 32 × 59 cm, Musée des beaux-arts, Rouen,
• Baptême du Christ, 32 × 59 cm, Musée des beaux-arts, Rouen,
• Résurrection du Christ, 32 × 59 cm, Musée des beaux-arts, Rouen,
• Saint Herculanus, 32 × 38 cm, Galerie nationale de l’Ombrie, Pérouse,
• Saint Constantius , 32 × 38 cm, Galerie nationale de l’Ombrie, Pérouse,

Sur la base des colonnes 

• Saint Maurus, 32 × 38 cm, Galerie nationale de l’Ombrie, Pérouse,
• San Pietro Vincioli, 33 × 38 cm, Galerie nationale de l’Ombrie, Pérouse,
• Sainte Scolastique, 33 × 38 cm, Galerie nationale de l’Ombrie, Pérouse,
• Saint Benoît, 33,5 × 26 cm, Pinacothèque Vaticane, Rome,
• Sainte Flavie, 35 × 26 cm, Pinacothèque Vaticane, Rome,
• Saint Placide, 33,5 × 30 cm, Pinacothèque Vaticane, Rome,

Analyse

Le polyptyque réalisé immédiatement avant les fresques de la Sala delle Udienze del Collegio del Cambio est le témoignage de la maturité atteinte dans la plénitude des formes par Le Pérugin dont la rondeur du modelé annonce déjà par certains aspects l’art de Raphaël.

Sources

• (it) Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en italien intitulé « Polittico di San Pietro » (voir la liste des auteurs).

Bibliographie

• Vittoria Garibaldi, Perugino, in Pittori del Rinascimento, Scala, Florence, 2004 (ISBN 888117099X)

Articles connexes

• Liste d’œuvres du Pérugin
• Liste de polyptyques italiens dispersés

 

Il polittico era composto da:

• Ascensione, 280×216 cm, Lione, Musée des Beaux-Arts
• Eterno benedicente con cherubini e angeli, dalla cimasa, 114×230 cm, Lione, Musée des Beaux-Arts
• Tondo di Geremia, diametro 127 cm, Nantes, Musée des Beaux-Arts
• Tondo di Isaia, diametro 127 cm, Nantes, Musée des Beaux-Arts
• Adorazione dei Magi, dalla predella, 32×59 cm, Rouen, Musée des Beaux-Arts
• Battesimo di Cristo, dalla predella, 32×59 cm, Rouen, Musée des Beaux-Arts
• Resurrezione, dalla predella, 32×59 cm, Rouen, Musée des Beaux-Arts
• Sant’Ercolano, dalla predella, Perugia, 32×38 cm, Galleria nazionale dell’Umbria
• San Costanzo, dalla predella, Perugia, 32×38 cm, Galleria nazionale dell’Umbria
• San Mauro, sulle basi delle colonne, 32×38 cm, Perugia, Galleria nazionale dell’Umbria
• San Pietro Vincioli, sulle basi delle colonne, 33×28,5 cm, Perugia, Galleria nazionale dell’Umbria
• Santa Scolastica, sulle basi delle colonne, 32×28 cm, Perugia, Galleria nazionale dell’Umbria
• San Benedetto, sulle basi delle colonne, 33,5×26 cm, Roma, Pinacoteca Vaticana
• Santa Giustina di Padova, sulle basi delle colonne, 35×26 cm, Roma, Pinacoteca Vaticana
• San Placido, sulle basi delle colonne, 33,5×30 cm, Roma, Pinacoteca Vaticana

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyptyque_de_San_Pietro

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, PISANELLO: Portrait d’une princesse d’Este

Giacobbe Giusti, PISANELLO: Portrait d’une princesse d’Este

Giacobbe Giusti, PISANELLO: Portrait d’une princesse d’Este

Artiste	Pisanello
Date	vers 1435-1440
Type	Huile sur bois de peuplier
Dimensions (H × L)	42 × 29,6 cm
Localisation	Musée du Louvre, Paris (France)
Numéro d’inventaire	RF 766

Le Portrait d’une princesse d’Este est un tableau de Pisanello représentant une jeune femme vue de profil, dont la silhouette se détache sur un fond de fleurs et de papillons. Peint vers 1435-1440¹, il est conservé à Paris au musée du Louvre.

Éléments historiques

Le tableau a été acquis vers 1860 par le consul allemand à Paris, Félix Bamberg. Charles Picard le vendit au musée du Louvre en 1893 pour la somme de trente mille francs. Il fut d’abord considéré comme une œuvre de Piero della Francesca. Adolfo Venturi fut le premier, en 1889², à publier le tableau comme une œuvre de Pisanello. Cette attribution fait aujourd’hui l’unanimité.

En 2015, le tableau a été confié au Centre de recherche et de restauration des musées de France (C2RMF). L’œuvre est dans un état de conservation exceptionnel pour un tableau du xv^e siècle, mais l’épais vernis teinté du xix^e siècle, avant l’entrée au musée du Louvre,. s’était assombri. Le laboratoire a procédé à l’amincissement modéré du vernis et a enlevé des repeints anciens. Ces opérations ont permis de montrer la présence d’importants repentir, et ont mis en évidence la carnation diaphane de la princesse qui a été travaillée en couches minces. Le fond sombre des feuillages a été élaboré avec des pâtes épaisses. Le ciel a été peint en dernier avec un subtil dégradé du bleu clair au bleu foncé en utilisant le lapis-lazuli. Déjà Giorgio Vasarilouait la beauté et l’intensité de son « azur outremer »³.

Sujet

La vue de profil, propre aux représentations médiévales de figures nobles, est utilisée pour cette figure que l’on identifiera comme une des princesses du temps autant pour le sujet que pour le modèle. Le critique d’art Gustave Geffroy nous la décrit ainsi : « Coiffée en forme d’œuf, les cheveux tirés sous une bandelette, le front bombé et ivoirin, le profil net, comme tracé par le médailleur qu’était Pisanello, la taille placée haut, les manches rouges, la robe blanche, la princesse de la maison d’Este est un singulier et vivant portrait peint sur un fond de fleurs et de papillons ».

Analyse

La question de l’identité du modèle reste ouverte. Adolfo Venturi, le premier, reconnut le motif brodé sur le tissu recouvrant l’épaule de la jeune femme, un vase à double anse. Il s’agit de l’emblème gravé par Pisanello sur les médailles à l’effigie de Nicolas III d’Este. Il identifia donc le modèle comme une des filles de Nicolas III.

Parmi les filles de Nicolas III, deux noms reviennent le plus souvent, Lucia d’Este (1419-1437) et Ginevra d’Este (1419-1440). Pour appuyer l’hypothèse de Lucia d’Este, on peut s’appuyer sur la ressemblance entre le modèle du tableau de Pisanello et le portrait de Lucia d’Este dans une miniature présentant chacun des membres de la maison d’Este. Les partisans de Ginevra d’Este rappellent la petite branche de genévrier qui est peinte dans l’encolure de la robe, et qui renverrait à son prénom Ginevra.

Une troisième hypothèse renvoie à Marguerite Gonzague, épouse de Lionel d’Este, de 1434 à 1440. Le genévrier peut également lui être associé. Elle fit son entrée à Ferrare, dans une allée couverte de genévriers plantés en terre. D’autre part, les couleurs du vêtement du modèle sont celles des Gonzague : le blanc, le rouge, et le vert.

Il paraît probable que le tableau fut commandé à Pisanello à la mort du modèle, qu’il s’agisse de Lucia d’Este, morte en 1437, de Ginevra d’Este, morte en 1440 (la jeune femme, mariée à 14 ans à Sigismondo Malatesta, seigneur de Rimini, aurait été empoisonnée par celui-ci dans le but d’en épouser une autre), ou de Marguerite Gonzague, morte également en 1440. En effet, les ancolies et les œillets sont des symboles de mort et de douleur. De plus, le grec utilise le même mot, Ψυχή (psyché), pour désigner les papillons et l’âme.

Notes et références

1. ↑ « Portrait d’une jeune princesse  » [archive], notice sur louvre.fr.
2. ↑ A. Venturi, La scoperta di un ritratto estense del Pisanello in : Archivio Storico dell’Arte, 1889.
3. ↑ Dominique Thiébaut, Annie Hochart-Giacobbi, La mystérieuse princesse de Pisanello, p. 76-81, dans Grande Galerie. Le Journal du Louvre, n^o 36, juin/juillet/août 2016

Annexes

Liens externes

• Notice n^o 1241 [archive], base Atlas, musée du Louvre

Bibliographie

 : document utilisé comme source pour la rédaction de cet article.

• D. Cordellier, La Princesse au brin de genévrier, RMN, 1996.
• Lionello Puppi (avec des contributions de Donata Battilotti, Elena Filippi, Tiziana Franco, Barbara Mazza, Monica Moltoni, Ruggero Rugolo), Pisanello, Hazan, 1996.
• (it)AA.VV., L’opera completa di Pisanello, Rizzoli, Milan, 1966
• (it)Pierluigi De Vecchi ed Elda Cerchiari, I tempi dell’arte, volume 2, Bompiani, Milan, 1999

Portrait of Princess is a tempera painting on panelattributed to the Italian Late-Gothic master Pisanello. It was probably executed between 1435 and 1449 and is also known as Portrait of a Princess of the House of Este. It is firmly attributed to Pisanello on stylistic grounds and because he stayed in Ferrara in the period, where he also finished a portrait and a celebrative medalof Marquis Leonello d’Este.

The princess is shown in profile against a background of numerous butterflies and columbine flowers. The butterfly(it seems a Vanessa atalanta) near the princess’ brow is a symbol of the soul.

The painting is currently housed and exhibited in the Musée du Louvre in Paris, France.

Портрет Джиневры д’Эсте

Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии

Пизанелло

Портрет принцессы. 1435—1440

Portrait d’une jeune princesse

Дерево, темпера. 43 × 30 см

Лувр, Париж

Изображения на Викискладе

Запрос «Портрет принцессы» перенаправляется сюда; о рисунке Леонардо да Винчи см. Женский портрет в профиль.

«Портрет принцессы» (фр. Portrait d’une jeune princesse, 1435—1440) — картина кисти итальянского живописца раннего кватроченто Пизанелло. Известна также как «Портрет принцессы из дома Эсте» и приписывается Пизанелло во многом потому, что он находился в Ферраре в то время и создал портрет и памятную медаль, изображавшие маркиза Леонелло д’Эсте.

Сюжет

Принцесса изображена в профиль, на фоне бабочек и цветов водосбора. Считается, что это портрет Джиневры д’Эсте, хотя вначале полагали, что на картине запечатлена Маргарита Гонзаго, жена Леонелло д’Эсте. Этот портрет рассматривался как часть композиции, второй половиной которой являлся портрет Леонелло. Противники этой версии утверждают, что обычно картины, изображавшие супружеские пары, имели одинаковые размеры и фон. Помимо этого, цветы на картине не принадлежат к символам Гонзаго, на ней присутствует лишь ваза — символ д’Эсте.

Джиневра д’Эсте вышла замуж за правителя Римини Сиджизмондо Пандольфо Малатеста и была убита им, когда он узнал о её бесплодности. Наличие на картине цветов водосбора (символ брака, но также символ смерти) привело к гипотезе, что Пизанелло написал портрет Джиневры после её смерти, в 1440-х гг.

Тщательная прорисовка деталей фона и красочность атмосферы полотна — типичные элементы стиля поздней (интернациональной) готики, выдающимся представителем которого в северной Италии являлся Пизанелло.

Символика

• бабочка = символ духа.
• цветы водосбора = символ брака, плодовитости и женской смерти.
• гвоздики = символ брака, плодовитости.
• ваза (на рукаве платья Джиневры) = символ дома Эсте; если бы это был свадебный портрет, то на нём были бы изображены символы домов жениха и невесты.
• ветка можжевельника = (итал. ginepro) восходит к имени Джиневра (итал. Ginevra) и, поскольку является символом женской смерти, относится к умершей Джиневре.

Musée du Louvre

La pyramide dans la cour Napoléon.

Le musée du Louvre, inauguré en 1793 sous l’appellation Muséum central des arts de la République dans le palais du Louvre, ancienne résidence royale située au centre de Paris, est aujourd’hui le plus grand musée d’art et d’antiquités au monde. Sa surface d’exposition est de 72 735 m²⁶.

Fin 2016, ses collections comprenaient 554 731 œuvres, dont 35 000 exposées et 264 486 œuvres graphiques. Celles-ci présentent l’art occidental du Moyen Âge à 1848, celui des civilisations antiques qui l’ont précédé et influencé (orientales, égyptienne, grecque, étrusque et romaine), les arts des premiers chrétiens et de l’Islam.

 

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrait_d%27une_princesse_d%27Este

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com