Campus Martius

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Giacobbe Giusti, Campus Martius

Publié par GIACOBBE GIUSTI le 18 janvier 2018
Publié dans: Campus Martius, Colonne de Marc-Aurèle., Das Marcellustheater heute, Hellenistic Age, Late Republic and early Empire, Model of the ancient Campus Martius around AD 300., Paul W Jacobs, II; Diane Atnally Conlin , 2014, “Campus Martius : the Field of Mars in the life of ancient Rome”, New York, NY: Cambridge University, Regal Rome and early Republic, Rome's foundation myth, prior to the founding of the city, Rhea Silvia, the mother of Romulus and Remus, had her twin sons, Romulus and Remus,, Senza categoria, Temple of Bellona [296 BC], Temple of Fortuna [293 BC], Temple of Juturna [241 BC], Temple of Hercules [221 BC], Temple of Vulcan [214 BC) and Temple of Fortuna Equestris. Tagué : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Poster un commentaire

Giacobbe Giusti, Campus Martius

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Campus Martius

The Pantheon, a landmark of the Campus Martius since ancient Rome.

Giacobbe Giusti, Campus Martius

Das Marcellustheater heute

Giacobbe Giusti, Campus Martius

Colonne de Marc-Aurèle.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Campus Martius

Base de la colonne d’Antonin.

 Field of Mars
Giacobbe Giusti, Campus Martius

Model of the ancient Campus Martius around AD 300.
Giacobbe Giusti, Campus Martius

The Pantheon, a landmark of the Campus Martius since ancient Rome.

The Campus Martius (Latin for the « Field of Mars », ItalianCampo Marzio), was a publicly owned area of ancient Romeabout 2 square kilometres (490 acres) in extent. In the Middle Ages, it was the most populous area of Rome. The IV rione of Rome, Campo Marzio, which covers a smaller section of the original area, bears the same name.

Antiquity

According to Rome’s foundation myth, prior to the founding of the city, Rhea Silvia, the mother of Romulus and Remus, had her twin sons, Romulus and Remus, taken by the King of Alba Longa. The boys were later discarded in the swelling Tiber River, which would later run along the Campus’ western boundary. Washing ashore further downriver, the brothers would return decades later to found a new city. Romulus, who became Rome’s sole king (after killing his brother Remus), ruled for many years until sometime in the seventh century B.C. As he came to the end of his life, a storm cloud descended upon the center of the open field outside the city’s pomerium in order to lift the elderly king to heaven.[1]

This land, “between the city and the Tiber,” became the property of Rome’s last Etruscan king Tarquinius Superbus. After his defeat and exile, the plain was dedicated to the god Mars.[2] Roman men assembled every spring before heading off to fight the hostile tribes that surrounded Rome, and citizens gathered for important religious festivals. With the exception of a small altar to Mars near the center of the field, no visible changes were made to the field until the fifth century B.C.[1]

In 435 B.C. the Villa Publica was established in a prepared 300m clearing. The area was a gathering space for citizens to congregate every five years, to be counted in a census but had no permanent structures; no additions would be made for another two centuries.[3]

With the advent of the Punic Wars in the mid-third century B.C. Roman military expansion moved out of the Italian peninsula, resulting in the reduction of seasonal musters on the field. The number of foreign wars, however, greatly increased the amount of wealth flowing into Rome. Generals who had sworn to various deities to build temples in their honor if victorious, used the vast amounts of wealth to fund these construction projects. Besides temples and wooden markets, entertainment venues were built also, though they were to be temporary.

Starting in the time of Sulla, building lots were sold or granted to influential Romans, and insulae (apartment blocks) and villas encroached on the common land. It later became the place for comitia centuriata, civic meetings with weapons, and for the city’s militia. In 55 BC, Pompey constructed a permanent theater, the Theatrum Pompeium, the first stone theater in Rome. When the Curia Hostilia burnt down in 52 BC, the theater was sometimes used as a meeting place for the Senate. The area was also used as the assembling ground for elections. Julius Caesar planned for the Saepta (enclosures used for elections) to be placed there; they were later completed by his heir Augustus (Octavian). In 33 BC, Octavian dedicated the Porticus Octaviae, built from spoils of the Dalmatian War.

During the Augustan period of the early Roman Empire, the area became officially part of the city: Rome was split into 14 regions, and the Campus Martius was divided into the VII Via Lata on the east and the IX Circus Flaminius nearer to the river. The Campus Martius also held the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), built by the Senate to mark the establishment of peace by Augustus. It was intended to symbolize the successful completion of Augustus’ efforts to stabilize the Empire. Marcus Agrippa had the original swampy ground made into a pool and baths in a setting of parkland and temples, the Laconicum Sudatorium or Baths of Agrippa. Also, he built the Porticus Argonautarum and the Pantheon, which was later rebuilt by Hadrian as it still stands today. In 19 BC, he also completed the Aqua Virgo, to supply water to these new baths and fountains.

In the non-populated northern area was the huge Mausoleum of Augustus. Other buildings that were made were the Theatre of Marcellus, the Temple for Isis (from around the time of Caligula), the baths and bridge by Nero, and Pompey’s Theatre, where Julius Caesar was murdered by Marcus Brutus and his allies. After the great fire of 64 A.D. Domitian rebuilt the burnt monuments plus a stadium (eventually to become today’s Piazza Navona) and an Odeion (a small performance hall). In 119 A.D, reinforcing the themes of imperial divinity and apotheosis established by Augustus, Hadrian and the succeeding Antonines added a temple to Hadrian’s mother-in-law, the Divine Matidia, and a temple to the Divine Hadrian himself built by Antoninus Pius.[4]

As was the case with the first two Flavian and Antonine emperors, the Severans didn’t commit many resources to construction projects in an already crowded Campus Martius. Their interests lay elsewhere in repairs and commissioning new structures in other regions of the capital.[5] The Campus didn’t see another major architectural change until the reign of Aurelian.

The citizens of Rome took great pride in knowing that Rome required no fortifications because of the stability brought by the Pax Romana under the protection of the Roman Army. In 270 A.D., however, barbarian tribes flooded across the Germanic frontier and reached northern Italy as the Roman Army struggled to stop them. To alleviate the city’s vulnerability, the emperor ordered the construction of a 19-kilometer-long, 6- to 8-meter-high brick wall, fortified with defensive turrets, named the Aurelian Walls. Aurelian did not live to see his work completed under his successor Probus, in 276 A.D. With the completion of the walls, the Campus Martius was finally incorporated into the rest of the city.[6]

By the mid-fourth century, when emperor Constantius II visited Rome, now the former capital, many of the pagan temples were closed. Buildings dedicated to Christianity began to occupy their spaces. Some were reduced to supporting material, some were razed, and some were given new roles, such as the Pantheon. In 663 A.D. its bronze roof tiles were removed and replaced with lead, an act that Gregorius said was the result of “excessive avarice and the ‘excessive greed for gold.’”[7] In the fifth century, Rome was burned and sacked twice: by the Visigoths in 410 A.D. and by the Vandals in 455 A.D. Three earthquakes racked the city between 408 and 508 A.D, and two floods washed over low-lying spaces in 398 and 411 A.D. Many marble facings and columns were tossed into kilns to be burned into lime powder for reuse.[8]

Writing in the twelfth or thirteenth century, Magister Gregorius, marveled at those edifices in the Field of Mars whose antiquity was clear but whose names were not as certain.[9] Looking down from the heights of one of Rome’s hills, he recorded that the great structures had been replaced by a « forest of [medieval] towers ».[10] In 1581, French essayist Michel Montaigne traveled to Rome and noted that “upon the very wrecks of the ancient buildings, as they fall to ruin, the builders set out casually the foundations of new houses, as if these fragments were great masses of rock, firm and trustworthy. It is evident that many of the old streets lie more than thirty feet below the level of those now in existence.”[11]

Geography

The Campus Martius was located not in the city proper, but north of the Capitoline Hill.[12] Until the imperial era, most of the region lay outside of the pomerium. The field covered an area of about 250 hectares, or 600 acres (243 ha), extending a little more than two kilometres north and south from the Capitoline to the porta Flaminia, and a little less than two kilometeres east and west in its widest part, between the Quirinal and the river. It was low, from 10 to 15 metres above the level of the sea in antiquity, now 13 to 20, and from 3 to 8 above that of the Tiber, and of course subject to frequent inundations. Ancient writers say that there were several recognizable natural points, such as an oak grove north of the Tiber Island and the Palus Caprae, in the center of the space.[13]

Significance

In Latin, Campus Martius means « Field of Mars », a god highly considered in the Roman pantheon. Paul W. Jacobs III attributes the significance of Mars to his patronage of both military and agriculture.[14] In the calendar year, March was the month named after Mars: this month first marked the beginning of when the consuls started to work until 153 BCE.[15]

The Campus Martius may have been named after the Ara Martis (« Mars’ altar »), which was talked about starting in the eighth century BCE.[16] It is not known exactly when the Ara Martis was built or when it was destroyed.[17]

The social climate and events surrounding Campus Martius were significant to Roman culture. Livy describes a horse race called Equirria, which started on March 14. The winning horse was killed and sacrificed to Mars.[18] The second event used to support his claim was the Anna Perenna. This event was when the plebs would go out to Campus Martius to eat and drink.[19] The reason why Anna Perenna was important was because she was an ugly hag and she represented the end of a year, and Mars represented the nice beginning of the year.[20] The last event Jacobs II talks about is the Tubilustrium festival, which purified military instruments to summon the cruciate assemblies. This celebration used to validate the emperors’ imperium, but later on the festival validated the consuls imperium. By describing these events Jacobs II does a good job of supporting the claim that Campus Martius was culturally significant.

Architecture

The style and structure of Campus Martius architecture went through several stages of development between the 6th century BCE through Late Antiquity. It is virtually impossible to pinpoint exactly when and why these stages occurred, but some historians have sectionalized different periods where Roman architecture faced relatively significant transformation.[21]

Regal Rome and early Republic

Between the mid-6th century BC and the end of the early Republic (324 BC) four “temples” were built.[22] These were Temple of Diana [6th century], Temple of Castor and Pollux [495 BC], Temple of Apollo Sosianus [431 BC] and Temple of Juno Regina [392 BC]. Of these four structures, many view the Temple of Diana (Rome) as semi-legendary since it lacks enough sustainable evidence to prove its existence.[22]The reason these two periods are combined as one is because there is minimal certainty on the structure and style of these temples. The reason for this, out of probability, is because the material used at the time was neither concrete, stone or marble, materials that are sustainable longer term and not only that but over two centuries there is certainly the risk of the destruction of these temples.[23]

Hellenistic Age

After the death of Alexander the Great in 324 BC or the beginning of the « wave of Hellenism » there was a drastic increase in terms building construction within the city of Rome.[23] In the case of Campus Martius, specifically during the « wave of Hellenism », there were seven temples built.[24] These new temples constructed were as follows; Temple of Bellona [296 BC], Temple of Fortuna [293 BC], Temple of Juturna [241 BC], Temple of Hercules [221 BC], Temple of Vulcan [214 BC) and Temple of Fortuna Equestris [173 BC]. The one temple excluded on that prior list is a temple built between 190 BC and 179 BC. It is uncertain if this temple was as Cicero writes, the “Temple of Nymphs”, or as other sources believe the “Temple of the Larges Permarini.[25]

This “period of Hellenism” was the first major step in which the Roman temples, as well as the temples found in Campus Martius were generally made of stone architecture. This new style was in a way, a step up from the simpler early forms, which often appear coarse and bulky in comparison to the aesthetic perfection and refinement of the later structures.[26] This period a transformation occurred from simple experimentation to the strict mathematical complexity of ground plans and superstructures.[26] The Hellenistic Period was not only an expansion in terms of temples numerically within the Campus Martius, but also a stylistic transformation.

Late Republic and early Empire

Similar to the Hellenistic Period, the Late Republic and Early Empire was also a period of several construction projects within the Campus Martius. This period, chronologically, began at the end of the third and final Punic War and lasted until the end of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty in 65 AD. During this period there were six temples built in Campus Martius. They were the Temple of Jupiter Stator [146 BC], the Temple of Feronia [Pre-100 BC], the Temple of Neptunus [97 BC], the Temple of Isis and Serapis [43 BC] and the Temple of Mars Ultor [2 BC]. The one temple excluded from this list is the Temple of Minerva Chalcidica. The reason for this exclusion is because it is unknown whether this temple was built by Pompey in 60 BC or built by Augustus in 29 BC. Certain sources support the belief that Dion Cassius attributes this temple to Augustus: « Temple of Minerva, which was called Chalcidicum”[27]Unlike the structural and stylistic transformation from Regal Period to the Hellenistic Period the temples in the Campus Martius were rather consistent. The main reason that these two periods are separated is because the motivation or reasoning for building these temples changed.[23] In the past these temples were more commonly than not, an attribute to certain individuals for their past success by fellow patrons, but following the end of the Hellenistic period these temples became more of political instruments than ever before.[23] Instead of being merely genuine and slightly political “donations” that exemplified the successful of individuals, these temples in Campus Martius now were expected to trigger propaganda values whenever large architectural projects took place.[23]

Roman Empire

Alongside Rome, temples built within the Campus Martius faced a “fundamental change in stylistic direction” during the latter half of the first century on.[23] This was a period when the sculptures and linear forms of the classical past was first firmly challenged by the canopied volume of the future.[28] This was a historical period for Roman architecture in that, the catalyst for architects to embrace concrete as a design material or as Nero describes it break free from “the shackles of the classical past”.[28] For possibly the first time Campus Martius and all of Rome faced a period where they moved away from the classical ways of architecture.[29]

Monuments and historical architectural discrepancies

« Horologium Augusti »

Main article: Solarium Augusti

Before the 1980s, the reconstruction of the obelisk and its usage were erroneous. Prior to that era, Buchner’s paper and reconstruction of the obelisk was blindly believed and deemed as accurate. His reconstruction was arguing that the obelisk with the gnomon on top of it was used as a sundial, using the sun’s shadow’s reflection to keep track of the hours of the day. Furthermore, Buchner argued that the sundial was integrated into the design of the Ara Pacis in a way that the shadow cast directly onto the altar on Augustus’s birthday. The sundial was also integrated in the design of the Mausoleum of Augustus in such a way which illustrated that the entire complex was a cosmic representation of the Principate and the destiny of Augustus, along with his peaceful reign and death.

In the mid-1980s Schutz and Bandini challenged the erroneous reconstruction. Bandini found several mistakes made by Buchner on interpreting the ancient texts written by Pliny. Pliny referred to a solar meridian, not a sundial. A solar meridian indicates the length of days and nights, therefore reflecting the timing of the solstices. It was used as an instrument to check the congruence of the civil calendar with the solar year. Further archeological findings where a travertine pavement embedded with a line running north to south with Greek lettering in bronze with zodiac signs confirmed Pliny’s writing. Also, the fact that the site was measured to be about a meter too high to be considered of Augustan date, therefore indicated that the instrument built under Augustus lost its accuracy and was renovated by Domitian.[30]

Schutz then highlighted some technical failure further refuting the previous reconstruction such as: The erroneous marking of the site where the obelisk lay, the mislabeling of the angles for the relationship between the three monuments and the fact that the gnomon’s shadow would cast several football fields away from the obelisk due to the sun’s angle.[30]

It is worth noting, however, that even after those findings, the relevance and the cosmic meaning of the obelisk and the two other monuments constructed under Augustus’s reign remain right. The importance of Augustus’s reign is supported by the evidence that Domitian decided to renovate the instrument and keep it dedicated to Augustus.

The Ara Pacis

The Ara Pacis is an altar that was built during the reign of Augustus; begun in 13 BCE, the monument was dedicated in 9 BCE, on Livia’s birthday. Allegedly altars were used for sacrifices to Pagan Gods in Ancient Rome. The Ara Pacis represented Augustus’ goal to represent the era of peace that came with the end of the Republicand the beginning of the Empire. The south panel depicts a religious process with Augustus, Agrippa, Livia, Tiberius and others of the Augustan family. The message conveyed was that the Augustan family was to stand the test of time and stay. The north panel depicted the senate in a procession. The message was that the senate was with Augustus instead of against him. The east panel depicts Tellus, the Roman Goddess of the earth and Pax. The message was that Roman people were no longer starving, which was consistent with Augustus’ promise of “peace and fertility”, where he gave land to farmers to plant in the fall and harvest in the spring. The west panel depicts the sacrifice of either Aeneas, the founder of Rome or Numa Pompilius the second king of Rome, it is also where the entrance is located.

Architectural significance

The steps leading up to the table on top of the altar represent the ascendence from a public space to a sacred one. Also, the fact that the Ara Pacis did not have a roof or doors and that Gods were depicted looking down from the friezes indicated that the person undertaking vows was looked down upon. When the Senate decreed the building of the Ara Pacis for Augustus, they did not specify any restrictions to the architects. The architects in Ancient Rome used to draw plans with dimensions in proportions and ratios; for instance, the enclosure’s size and the number of steps were all specific ratios related to the size of the base. The Ara Pacis’ eclectic art leads us to believe that components might have come from other altars in other provinces most likely salvaged on the troops’ way back to Rome.[31]

Historical discrepancies

Before Andersen’s studies, it was assumed that the monument’s structure was more or less unchanged between its erection and dedication. Andersen relied on evidence from Ovid’s Fasti and the “Calendar of the Feasts” which depicts Augustus as Pontifex Maximus, a status that he achieved in 12 BCE; his return from the provinces as victor was celebrated with a massive feast during which, as depicted by Ovid, a white bull was slaughtered. But such a feast could not have taken place in the “complete” Ara Pacis; the elevated area was much too small for such a large gathering. Andersen makes a point that the feast actually took place on the foundation of the Ara Pacis, which was then called Ara Fortunae Reducis; at that time, this was simply a plinth on a step base. After Lepidus’ death and Augustus’ election as Pontifex Maximus, the building of the complete Ara Pacis began; steps were carved into the plinth, a table was put on top, and friezes were carved onto panels affixed to the walls. Evidence of this historical discrepancy was made evident by Gatti’s reconstruction plans, which contrasted with Moretti’s in the lack of moldings for the steps.[32]

Augustus’ rise to power through building on Campus Martius

A large portion of events occurring on Campus Martius were associated with either Roman military or Roman electoral or political activities. On it, troops trained for war, and successful generals displayed their riches taken from conquered lands, erecting temples and public buildings to impress the Roman populace in order to curry favor in the elections.[33] In the 30s and 20s B.C.E Rome was experiencing unparalleled growth in public building projects sponsored by many different leading men in the Roman State. In Rome, the sponsorship of these public buildings provided special prestige to each of the individual builders and their families.[34]Augustus, however, expanded past receiving simple prestige, in favor of a much more powerful role. Augustus was amongst numerous builders during the time, but by focusing on the construction of buildings to hold political functions, Augustus was able to occupy a central place in Rome’s political atmosphere. The first building on Campus Martius to be associated with Augustus was the Saepta Julia, which was designed to manage the crowds at elections and prevent fraud.[34] Voters would gather in the pen space north of the Saepta and enter the structure on its northern end, where they would then cast their ballots. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa completed the Saepta Julia and dedicated it in honor of Augustus. The Pantheon, which was also built by Agrippa and associated with Augustus, was completed within a year of the Saepta Julia and was used for pre-election functions.[34] Agrippa tried to name the Pantheon after Augustus but was denied, instead he erected a statue of Augustus, Julius Caesar and himself in the porch of the Pantheon, forever associating the Pantheon with Augustus, Julius Caesar and Agrippa. So when the crowds gathered to listen to speeches concerning important political events, they did so in buildings dedicated to Augustus, automatically drawing the connection between Augustus and important Roman politics. All of the sites built specifically to host political activities, meetings of the Senate and both legislative and electoral assemblies, were sponsored by or closely associated with Augustus. The ancient Roman historian Strabo describes the presence Augustus left throughout Campus Martius:

In fact, Pompey, the Deified Caesar, Augustus, his sons and friends, and wife and sister, have outdone all others in their zeal for buildings and in the expense incurred. The Campus Martius contains most of these, and thus, in addition to its natural beauty, it has received still further adornment as the result of foresight. Indeed, the size of the Campus is remarkable, since it affords space at the same time and without interference, not only for the chariot-races and every other equestrian exercise, but also for all that multitude of people who exercise themselves by ball-playing, hoop-trundling, and wrestling; and the works of art situated around the Campus Martius, and the ground, which is covered with grass throughout the year, and the crowns of those hills that are above the river and extend as far as its bed, which present to the eye the appearance of a stage-painting — all this, I say, affords a spectacle that one can hardly draw away from. For this reason, in the belief that this place was holiest of all, the Romans have erected in it the tombs of their most illustrious men and women. The most noteworthy is what is called the Mausoleum, a great mound near the river on a lofty foundation of white marble, thickly covered with ever-green trees to the very summit. Now on top is a bronze image of Augustus Caesar; beneath the mound are the tombs of himself and his kinsmen and intimates; behind the mound is a large sacred precinct with wonderful promenades; and in the centre of the Campus is the wall (this too of white marble) round his crematorium; the wall is surrounded by a circular iron fence and the space within the wall is planted with black poplars. Such is Rome.[35]

As this series of architectural changes occurred following Augustus’ defeat of Mark Antony, Augustus’ association with the new political buildings furthered his rise to political power and status in Rome. Years of civil war from The Great Roman Civil War (49-45 BC) to the Final War of the Roman Republic (32-30 BC) had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Augustus just yet. At the same time Augustus could not give up his authority without risking further civil wars among other Roman generals, and even if he desired no political position, it was his duty to look after the well-being of Rome and Roman Provinces. Augustus’ aims from this point forward was to return Rome to a state a stability and civility by lifting the political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections in name at least. Not only did Augustus return the Senate and popular assemblies to their former role, his new buildings on Campus Martius provided the Senate and assemblies with new political homes, all of which were closely associated with Augustus. By willingly restoring the Roman Senate and popular assemblies to their former role and building several monumental politically focused buildings throughout Campus Martius, Augustus permanently connected himself with Rome’s political atmosphere.

Religious buildings

In the Campus Martius, many public monuments had a religious significance, as they were temples to various gods that were absorbed into the Roman culture. One of the biggest monuments is the temple of Mars Ultor (the avenger) dedicated to Mars, the god of War. It is in the Forum Augustum and is Augustus’s most ambitious architectural building. The construction started in 30BC and took three decades. The exterior of the temple was constructed using the Italian white Luna marble from Carrara[36] and the columns reflect the Corinthians style. The architecture is strongly influenced by the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in terms of its dimensions (36 meters wide and its length is 50 meters.[36] It was also a political entity aimed at magnifying Augustus role in avenging Caesar’s assassination.

Some of the most significant temples of the campus are the rectangular temples of Largo di Torre Argentina, located in the southern part of the Campus Martius. It is a religious complex composed of four temples: Temple Juturna, Temple Fortuna Huiusce Diei, Temple Feronia, and Temple Lares Permarini. Those temples demonstrate that religious activity is being spread out across Rome and is not focused on the former religious places of the Capitoline Hill or the Forum Romanum.[36] Art historian Stamper argues that the Largo Argentina has marked the beginning of multiple triumphal processions of successful generals. During the 1st century BC, there was a change from the Ionic style to the Corinthian Order. Acanthus leaves were sculpted on the top of these columns.[36]

Two other important temples are the Temple of Apollo Sosianus and the temple of Bellona. One is associated with the cult of Apollo, and the other one is dedicated to the goddess of war, respectively. Both temples are located in the Circus Flaminiusand were built during the 2nd century BC.[36] Bellona’s Temple was rebuilt in marble and travertine with six Corinthian columns along the front and nine along the sides[37]

Religious events

The Campus Martius was an area of religious practice. During the Ides of October fall, more specifically the 15th, it was seat of a festival dedicated to Mars takes, the October Horse. This tradition is said to have started during the 6th century B.C.[38]The festival’s rituals were supposed to protect the coming year’s crop and the soldiers that had returned to Rome after a campaign. This festival was composed of many stages, including horse chariot races and the sacrifice of a horse followed by the decoration of the decapitated head with leaves.[39]

Another important religious event was the Secular Games (Latin: ludi saeculares). Established during the Roman Republic, the games were resurrected by emperor Claudius when a man named Valesius prayed for a cure for his children’s illness and was instructed to sacrifice to the underworld deities. Claudius did this as a way to not only appease the gods after several lightning bolts struck the city of Rome, but to emphasize the birth of a Golden Age. These games were a sort of a rite of passage that were held over several days and nights to mark the end of a new saeculum and the beginning of the next one. A saeculum was supposedly the longest possible length of a human life, either to 100 or 110 years old. The procession started at the Temple of Apollo, near the Circus Flaminius, proceeded into the Forum, passed along to the Vicus Tuscus, Velabrum, through the Forum Boarium, and finally ended at the Temple of Juno Regina. Augustus, when he revived the games, changed the destination of the procession from the Temple of Juno Regina to the Temple of Ceres, which is on the Aventine. The Temple of Apollo that was most likely used was that of Apollo Sosianus, establishing a religious connection between the Aventine and the southwestern Campus.[40]

One of the last event was the Anna Perenna, also celebrated in the Campus Martius during the Ides of March. The people would go out to the Field of Mars for a day of feasting and drinking.[41] According to historian Johannes Lylud, during the festival they also make public and private sacrific for securing a healthy year.[42]

The Middle Ages

After the barbarian invasions cut the aqueducts, the rapidly dwindling population abandoned the surrounding hills and concentrated in the Campus Martius, depending on the Tiber for water, but subject to its flooding. Since it was next to the river and next to the Vatican, the area became the most populous part of Rome in the Middle Ages. The river supported a thriving economy and a supply of water, and the continuous stream of pilgrims to the city brought wealth to the area.

The main road connecting Rome to the rest of Europe was the Via Cassia, entering Rome through the Porta del Popolo in the northern part of the Campus Martius. Via Cassia became the most important road in medieval times, because it connected Rome with Viterbo, Sienna, and Florence.

The other main road to Rome, the Via Aurelia, became unsafe in medieval times with the spread of malaria, because it passed through the unhealthy marshes near several coastal lakes in the Maremma lowlands (as Orbetello lagoon, Capalbio lake, and other Tombolos), and because its route by the sea made it more susceptible to attack from raiders. The coastal towns around Via Aurelia were areas subjected to kidnapping of women and plunder by Muslim Saracen pirates.

Because of the increasing importance of the area, several popes decided to improve its conditions. In the period 1513–1521, Pope Leo X built a route connecting Porta del Popolo to the Vatican. This road was first called the Via Leonina after the pope, later the more famous Via di Ripetta after the name of the river port. To improve the hygiene of the area, several ancient Roman aqueducts were restored to operating condition.

As the population of Rome greatly increased in the Middle Ages, the Campus Martius became a crowded multi-cultural place where many foreigners settled. In 1555, Pope Paul IV designated part of the southern part of the Campus Martius as the ghetto to contain the city’s Jewish population.

Modern Rome

After the Renaissance, as was the case for the rest of Rome, the Campus Martius did not change much; there were no other great building projects and the population decreased. This was reversed after Rome became capital of the newly established Kingdom of Italy in 1870.

Later, the area became even more crowded, and protecting embankments were built to stop the flooding of the Tiber. This made the area much safer from threat of water, but the tall embankments effectively destroyed the traditional embarkation point called the Ripetta (« little bank »), the narrow streets leading down to the river, and the vernacular buildings along the river edge.

See also

References

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b Jacobs II, P., & Conlin, D. (2015). Campus Martius: The Field of Mars in the Life of Ancient Rome. New York City, New York: Cambridge University Press. 3
  2. Jump up^ Livy. Books I and II With An English Translation. Cambridge. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. 2.5.2
  3. Jump up^ Livy. Books III and IV With An English Translation. Cambridge. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. 4.22.7
  4. Jump up^ Platner, Samuel Ball, and Thomas Ashby. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford UP, H. Milford, 1929. Print. 331
  5. Jump up^ Jacobs II, P., & Conlin, D. (2015). Campus Martius: The Field of Mars in the Life of Ancient Rome. New York City, New York: Cambridge University Press. 162
  6. Jump up^ Platner, Samuel Ball, and Thomas Ashby. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford UP, H. Milford, 1929. Print. 348-350
  7. Jump up^ Gregorius, Magister. 1987. Narracio de mirabilibus urbis Romae. Translated by John Osborne in The Marvels of Rome. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. 29
  8. Jump up^ Manacorda, Daniele, 2000. Crypta Balbi: Museo nazionale romano. Milan: Electa. 20
  9. Jump up^ Gregorius, Magister. 1987. Narracio de mirabilibus urbis Romae. Translated by John Osborne in The Marvels of Rome. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. 10-15
  10. Jump up^ Gregorius, Magister. 1987. Narracio de mirabilibus urbis Romae. Translated by John Osborne in The Marvels of Rome. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. 18
  11. Jump up^ Montaigne, Michel de. 1983. Montaigne’s Travel Journal. Translated by Donald Murdoch Frame. San Francisco: North Point Press. 100
  12. Jump up^ Jacobs II, P., & Conlin, D. (2015). Campus Martius: The Field of Mars in the Life of Ancient Rome. New York City, New York: Cambridge University Press. 2
  13. Jump up^ Platner, Samuel Ball, and Thomas Ashby. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford UP, H. Milford, 1929. Print. 91-94
  14. Jump up^ Jacobs II, Paul, Campus Martius (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014) 29.
  15. Jump up^ Jacobs II, Paul, Campus Martius. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014) 28
  16. Jump up^ Jacobs II, Paul, Campus Marius (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014) 29-30
  17. Jump up^ Jacobs II, Paul, Campus Martius (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014) 30
  18. Jump up^ Jacobs II, Paul, Campus Martius (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2014) 28
  19. Jump up^ Jacobs II, Campus Martius (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2014)28
  20. Jump up^ Jacobs II, Paul, Campus Martius, (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2014) 28
  21. Jump up^ Ulrich, Roger & Quenemoen, Caroline (2013). “A Companion to Roman Architecture”. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-9964-3
  22. ^ Jump up to:a b Platner, Samuel (1929) Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press. 80-94
  23. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Ulrich, Roger & Quenemoen, Caroline (2013). A Companion to Roman Architecture. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-9964-3
  24. Jump up^ Platner, Samuel (1929) Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press. 80-94
  25. Jump up^ Platner, Samuel (1929) A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press. 80-94
  26. ^ Jump up to:a b Stamper, John (2008). The Architecture of the Roman Temples: The Republic of the Middle Empire. Cambridge University Press
  27. Jump up^ Middleton, John (2001). The Remains of Ancient Rome. London. Getty Research Institution. pp. 212 ISBN 978-1402174735
  28. ^ Jump up to:a b MacDonald, William (1982). Architecture of the Roman Empire. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300028195
  29. Jump up^ MacDonald, William (1982). Architecture of the Roman Empire. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300028195
  30. ^ Jump up to:a b Heslin, Peter. « Augustus, Domitian and the So-Called Horologium Augusti. »JSTOR. The Journal of Roman Studies, 2007. Web.
  31. Jump up^ Andersen, Wayne V. The Ara Pacis of Augustus and Mussolini : An Archeological Mystery. p.85, Geneva ; Boston: ©*ditions Fabriart, 2003.
  32. Jump up^ Andersen, Wayne V. The Ara Pacis of Augustus and Mussolini : An Archeological Mystery. p. 70-130, Geneva ; Boston: ©*ditions Fabriart, 2003.
  33. Jump up^ Rehak, Paul (2006). Imperium and Cosmos, Augustus and the Northern Campus Martius. The university of Wisconsin Press ISBN 0-299-22010-9
  34. ^ Jump up to:a b c Phillips, Darryl (2015). Reading the Civic landscape of Augustan Rome: Aeneid 1.421-429 and the Building Program of Augustus. Urban Dreams and Realities in Antiquity. Remains and Representations of the Ancient City, Brill 229-245
  35. Jump up^ Strabo, Volume 3. English translation by H.L. Jones; 1923.
  36. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Stamper, J (2005). The architecture of Roman temples: the Republic to the Middle Empire. Cambridge University Press.
  37. Jump up^ Jacobs, II, Paul W.; Atnally Conlin, Diane (2014). Campus Martius : the Field of Mars in the life of ancient Rome. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  38. Jump up^ Paul W Jacobs, II; Diane Atnally Conlin , 2014, “Campus Martius : the Field of Mars in the life of ancient Rome”, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2014
  39. Jump up^ C. Bennett Pascal, 1981, ‘October Horse’, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 85: 261-91
  40. Jump up^ Poe, J. (1984). The Secular Games, the Aventine, and the Pomerium in the Campus Martius.Classical Antiquity, Volume 3(1), 57-81. Retrieved March 23, 2015, from JSTOR
  41. Jump up^ Paul W Jacobs, II; Diane Atnally Conlin , 2014, “Campus Martius : the Field of Mars in the life of ancient Rome”, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  42. Jump up^ Johannes Lydud “De Mensibus 4.49” translated by Andrew Eastbourne for Roger Pearse, 2013. Web link: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Lydus/4/March*.html

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

Champ de Mars.

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

Topo planrome2.png
Localisation du Champ de Mars sur une carte topographique simplifiée de la ville de Rome antique avec, à titre indicatif, les empreintes des principaux monuments et les tracés des murs servien et aurélien.

Le Champ de Mars (en latin : Campus Martius, en italien : Campo Marzio) est une vaste plaine de près de deux kilomètres carrés située au nord-ouest du centre historique de Rome, sur la rive gauche du Tibre, et constituant un domaine public de la Rome antique. À l’origine, la région s’étend hors des murs de la ville et c’est donc dans cette région qu’est consacré le premier sanctuaire de Mars de Rome. Au Moyen Âge, le Champ de Mars devient la région la plus peuplée de la ville. Il se situe aujourd’hui en partie dans le rione Campo Marzio R.IVqui, bien que portant le même nom, couvre une zone un peu plus petite.

Le Champ de Mars est une plaine inondable située à l’origine à l’extérieur des limites sacrées de la ville de Rome (pomerium) , à l’extérieur du mur servien du début de la République. Ce vaste espace relativement plat et encore peu encombré de construction sous la République est régulièrement inondé par les crues du Tibre1. Il est encadré à l’ouest par la boucle du Tibre, au sud par le relief du Capitole, à l’est par le Pincio et le Quirinal qui rejoint le Capitole. On peut y accéder au sud depuis le Vélabre par un passage étroit entre les pentes du Capitole et le Tibre et par le nord par un passage entre le fleuve et les pentes du Pincio2. La région couvre une zone d’environ 250 hectares s’étendant sur un peu plus de deux kilomètres du Capitole au sud à la Porta Flaminia au nord, et sur un peu moins de deux kilomètres du Tibre à l’est au Quirinal à l’ouest sur sa plus grande largeur. L’altitude antique de la plaine est de 5 à 10 mètres au-dessus du niveau de la mer (3 à 8 mètres par rapport au Tibre), contre 13 à 20 mètres aujourd’hui. Les auteurs antiques relèvent quelques points naturels remarquables comme un bois de chêne au nord de l’Île tibérine (Aesculetum), le Lucus Petelinus et une étendue marécageuse au centre de la région, le Palus Caprae, essentiellement alimentée par le cours d’eau Petronia Amnis qui prend sa source sur le Quirinal (Cati fons)3.

Dès le ve siècle av. J.-C., la partie sud de la plaine est baptisée Prata Flaminiaa 1 ou Campus Flaminiusa 2, une zone plus tard occupée par le Circus Flaminius qui sert de référence topographique pour localiser les monuments construits aux alentours (in Circo)4. Le nom de Campus Martius sert alors à désigner la région qui s’étend plus au nord5. Au début du ier siècle, Auguste entreprend une réorganisation administrative de la ville de Rome qui est découpée en quatorze nouvelles régions. Le Champ de Mars est annexé à la ville à cette occasion, constituant deux régions, la Regio IX à l’ouest et la Regio VIIà l’est6. Le nom de Campus Martius n’est alors plus utilisé que pour désigner la partie de la Regio IX Circus Flaminius qui s’étend à l’ouest de la Via Flaminia. Cette zone est elle-même découpée en deux parties distinctes dont les limites sont repérées par un cippea 3 : la partie méridionale qui est couverte de monuments et la partie septentrionale où la densité des constructions est plus faible et où il y a encore quelques espaces libres qui constituent sous l’Empire le « Champ de Mars » proprement dit7.

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

  • Limites de la Regio VII Via Lata.

  • Limites de la Regio IX Circus Flaminius.

Signification et usage

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

Le Champ de Mars vers 300 ap. J.-C. avec en haut à droite l’Île tibérine, en haut la zone du Circus Flaminius et au centre le théâtre de Pompée(maquette d’Italo Gismondi).

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

La partie sud du Champ de Mars, dite Prata Flaminia ou Campus Flaminius.

Le Campus Martius(littéralement « Champ de Mars ») doit son nom à la présence d’un autel dédié à Mars dès la plus haute antiquité, selon Festus l’autel est mentionné dans une loi de Numa Pompilius, ou plus simplement au fait que cette région est entièrement consacrée à Mars. Durant la royauté romaine, la plaine est utilisée comme pâture pour les moutons et les chevaux, comme zone de culture et comme espace pour l’entrainement athlétique et militaire des jeunes Romainsa 4. Selon une version de la tradition antique rapportée par Tite-Livea 5, la région a appartenu aux rois étrusques de la dynastie des Tarquins et c’est seulement après leur expulsion qu’elle est retombée dans le domaine public et a été dédié par la même occasion à Mars. Selon Denys d’Halicarnasse, la consécration de la région à Mars est antérieure aux règnes des Tarquins et leur appropriation du domainea 6.

Le Champ de Mars demeure un domaine public pendant toute la République et ce n’est qu’au début du ier siècle av. J.-C. que les premières parcelles sont vendues à des propriétaires privés afin de financer la guerre menée par Sylla contre Mithridate VI8. Les habitations privées ne commencent à apparaître que sous l’Empire mais se multiplient rapidement et les Régionnaires donnent pour le ive siècle un total de 2 777 insulae et 140 domus pour la Regio IX9.

La plupart des évènements qui se déroulent sur le Champ de Mars est étroitement associée à la guerre dont Mars est la divinité principale. C’est en effet dans cette région que le peuple romain en armes se rassemble et que sont célébrés les évènements à caractère militaire. Les troupes y sont entrainées et les généraux victorieux y exposent le butin rapporté des territoires conquis. De manière générale, le Champ de Mars est utilisé pour les évènements qui ne peuvent pas, pour des raisons religieuses, se dérouler dans les limites du pomerium. Les citoyens s’y rassemblent pour voter au sein des comices centuriates et des comices tributes, pour élire les magistrats et lors du census10,6. C’est dans cette zone que sont reçus les ambassadeurs étrangers qui ne peuvent pas pénétrer dans la ville. C’est également dans un édifice du Champ de Mars que se réunit le Sénat lorsqu’il s’agit de traiter d’affaires liées à la guerre comme décerner un triomphe à un général victorieux et de traiter d’affaires liées à la politique étrangère.

La région tient une place importante dans la religion romaine. Le Champ de Mars abrite principalement des cultes qui sont exclus des limites sacrées de la ville comme les cultes étrangers (celui d’Apollon Medicus par exemple) et les cultes liés aux divinités guerrières et infernales (ceux de Mars, Bellone et Dis Pater par exemple). Aux ides d’octobre (le 15 octobre) s’y déroule la principale fête religieuse célébrée en l’honneur de Mars, October equus. Selon la tradition, cette fête est instaurée durant le vie siècle av. J.-C. et est censée protéger les prochaines récoltes et les soldats qui sont revenus à Rome après une campagne militaire. Les festivités comprennent des courses de chars et le sacrifice d’un cheval11.

Monuments

Époque républicaine

Bien que n’étant pas intégré officiellement dans la ville de Rome sous la République, le Champ de Mars est considéré comme le quatrième quartier de la ville avec le Palatin, le Forum et le Capitole, comme l’atteste la construction de nombreux édifices publics (civils comme religieux) dans la partie méridionale dès l’époque républicaine (le Forum Holitorium et la zone du Circus Flaminius)6.

Fin de la République et principat d’Auguste

Au début de l’Empire, le Champ de Mars perd son rôle politique avec la disparition de la censure et la perte de pouvoirs puis la suppression des comices, mais la région n’est pas délaissée pour autant étant donné le potentiel en matière d’urbanisme qu’offre l’espace encore disponible au nord du Campus Flaminius12. Cet espace est déjà convoité et utilisé dès la fin de la République par Pompée qui construit un grand complexe comprenant un théâtre, un temple, des portiques et une curie et par César qui projette de construire de grandes Saeptamonumentales13. C’est sous l’impulsion conjointe d’Auguste et d’Agrippa que l’espace libre se couvre véritablement de monuments publics avec le Panthéon, les thermes d’Agrippa, le temple de Bonus Eventus, les Saepta Iulia, le Diribitorium ou encore le portique Vipsania. Auguste choisit le nord du Champ de Mars pour établir l’autel de la Paix et son mausolée13.

Auguste entreprend également la restauration et une réorganisation des monuments du Campus Flaminius, se réappropriant le symbolisme de chaque monument pour les intégrer dans un vaste complexe dynastique comprenant entre autres le portique d’Octavius, le portique d’Octavie, le portique de Philippe, le temple d’Apollon Sosianus, le théâtre de Marcellus et le théâtre de Balbus.

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

  • Vestiges du portique d’Octavie.

     

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

  • Reconstitution de l’autel de la Paix.

     

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

 

  • Façade du Panthéon.

Époque impériale

Les monuments augustéens sont régulièrement restaurés et reconstruits par les différents empereurs. Le Panthéon notamment est transformé par Hadrien pour adopter la forme qu’on lui connaît aujourd’hui. Mais les successeurs d’Auguste ne se contentent pas seulement de maintenir en état ou de faire évoluer les monuments existants, ils en construisent de nouveaux14, le Champ de Mars restant la seule région où l’urbanisme impérial peut encore librement s’exprimer12. Les empereurs érigent de nombreux arcs de triomphe, Néron fait construire de vastes thermes, Domitien, un stade et un odéon, Antonin le Pieux un temple dédié à Hadrien divinisé et une colonne sur le modèle de la colonne Trajane à l’instar de Marc-Aurèlequelques années plus tôt15. Tous ces monuments dédiés aux loisirs ou abritant des activités commerciales sont construits en parallèle avec de grands jardins qui transforment la région en un « quartier de plaisance » qui occupe une place importante dans la vie quotidienne des citoyens romains16. L’empereur Valentinien III fut assassiné sur le Champ de Mars le 16 mars 455[réf. nécessaire].

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

Giacobbe Giusti, Champ de Mars (Rome)

  • Base de la colonne d’Antonin.

De l’Antiquité à nos jours

Contrairement à d’autres quartiers de la Rome antique, le Champ de Mars n’a pas été abandonné au Moyen Âge. Le tracé des rues antiques a donc survécu, notamment celui de la Via Flaminia dont la portion à l’intérieur du mur d’Aurélien devient la Via Lata qui correspond à l’actuelle Via del Corso.

La région antique est aujourd’hui en partie incluse dans le rione Campo Marzio, un des 22 rioni de la ville moderne de Rome. Il est désigné dans la nomenclature administrative par le code R.IV.

La famille Borghèse y construisit un très important palais au début du xviie siècle.

  • Localisation du rione Campo Marziosur une carte du Municipio I de Rome.

  • Logo du rione Campo Marzio.

Notes et références

  • Sources modernes :
  1. ↑ Unicaen CIREVE.
  2. ↑ Jacobs et Conlin 2015, p. 2.
  3. ↑ Platner et Ashby 1929, p. 91-94.
  4. ↑ Platner et Ashby 1929, p. 91.
  5. ↑ Platner et Ashby 1929, p. 91-92.
  6. ↑ a, b et c Homo 1971, p. 350.
  7. ↑ Platner et Ashby 1929, p. 92.
  8. ↑ Platner et Ashby 1929, p. 92-93.
  9. ↑ Platner et Ashby 1929, p. 93.
  10. ↑ Richardson 1992, p. 278.1.
  11. ↑ Jacobs et Conlin 2015.
  12. ↑ a et b Homo 1971, p. 350-351.
  13. ↑ a et b Homo 1971, p. 351.
  14. ↑ Homo 1971, p. 351-352.
  15. ↑ Homo 1971, p. 352.
  16. ↑ Homo 1971, p. 353.
  • Sources antiques :
  1. ↑ Tite-Live, Histoire romaine, III, 54-63
  2. ↑ Varron, Lingua latina, V, 154
  3. ↑ CIL VI, 874 [archive]
  4. ↑ Denys d’Halicarnasse, Antiquités romaines, V, 13
  5. ↑ Tite-Live, Histoire romaine, II, 5
  6. ↑ Denys d’Halicarnasse, Antiquités romaines, V, 13

Bibliographie

  • Francesco Piranesi, Il Camp Marzio dell’antica Roma, gravures d’après les dessins de Giovanni Battista Piranesi, 1800.
  • (en) Samuel Ball Platner et Thomas Ashby, A topographical dictionary of Ancient Rome, Londres, Oxford University Press, , 608 p.
  • Léon Homo, Rome impériale et l’urbanisme dans l’Antiquité, Albin Michel, coll. « L’évolution de l’humanité », , 665 p.
  • (en) Lawrence Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, Johns Hopkins University Press, , 488 p.(ISBN 0801843006)
  • Luc Duret et Jean-Paul Néraudau, Urbanisme et métamorphose de la Rome antique, Les Belles Lettres, coll. « Realia », 
  • (en) Filippo Coarelli, Rome and environs : an archaeological guide, University of California Press, , 555 p. (ISBN 978-0-520-07961-8)
  • (en) John W. Stamper, The architecture of roman temples : the Republic to the middle Empire, Cambridge University Press, , 287 p.
  • (en) Roger B. Ulrich (dir.) et Caroline K. Quenemoen (dir.), A Companion to Roman Architecture, Blackwell Publishing, coll. « Blackwell companions to the Ancient World », 
  • (en) Paul W. Jacobs et Diane Atnally Conlin, Campus Martius : The Field of Mars in the Life of Ancient Rome, Cambridge University Press, , 268 p. (ISBN 9781107664920)

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

Liens externes

Plan intemporel du Champ de Mars central
Plan intemporel du Champ de Mars méridional