January 21st 1277, after the victory obtained against the Della Torre in Desio, the archbishop Ottone Visconti enters in Milan (14th century fresco in the Rocca Borromeo di Angera)

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

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Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

 

January 21st 1277, after the victory obtained against the Della Torre in Desio, the archbishop Ottone Visconti enters in Milan (14th century fresco in the Rocca Borromeo di Angera)

 

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

 

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

 

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

 

La guivre des Visconti.

Visconti
Coat of arms of the House of Visconti (1395).svg

Coat of arms of the Visconti of Milan
Founded 1075
Founder Ariprando Visconti
Final ruler Filippo Maria Visconti
Titles Lord of Milan (1277–1395)
Duke of Milan (1395–1447)
Motto Vipereos mores non violabo
(Latin for « I will not violate the customs of the serpent »)
Cadet branches Visconti di Modrone

Visconti is the family name of important Italian noble dynasties of the Middle Ages. The Visconti of Milan rose to power in their city, where they ruled from 1277 to 1447, initially as Lords then as Dukes and where several collateral branches still exist. The effective founder of the Visconti lordship of Milan was Ottone, who wrested control of the city from the rival Della Torrefamily in 1277.[1]

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

Depiction of the biscioneswallowing a child, the coat of arms of the House of Visconti, on the Archbishop’s palace in Piazza Duomo in Milan, Italy

Origins

In the second half of the 11th century, Ariprando Visconti and his son Ottone were the first family members to obtain the title of viscount, which then became hereditary throughout the male descent.[2][3] The primary sources show the first evidence of « Ariprandus et Otto Vicecomes » in 1075. In the following years, Ottone is shown in the proximity of the sovereigns of the Salian dynasty, Henry IV and his son Conrad. This relationship is confirmed by the circumstances of his death, which occurred in Rome in 1111, when he was slaughtered after an attempt to defend Henry V from an assault.[a][b][4] In the first documents where they appear, Ottone and his offspring declared to follow the Lombard law and acted in connection with other Milanese families of the noble upper class (capitanei). A relationship with the Litta, a Milanese vavasour family subordinate to the Visconti in the feudal hierarchy, is also documented.[5] These circumstances make evident their participation to the Milanese society in the years before 1075 and ultimately their Lombard origin.

In 1134, Guido Visconti, son of Ottone, received from the abbot of St. Gallen the investiture of the court of Massino, a strategic location on the hills above Lake Maggiore, near Arona,[6] where another family member was present in the second half of the 12th century as a guardian of the local archiepiscopal fortress. In 1142, the investiture was confirmed by the King Conrad III, in a diploma released to Guido in Ulm.[7] Another royal diploma, issued by Conrad III in 1142 as well, attests the entitlement of the Visconti to the fodrum in Albusciago and Besnate.[8] On the basis of a document from the year 1157, the Visconti were considered holders of the captaincy of Marliano (today Mariano Comense) since the time of the archbishop Landulf;[9]however, the available documentation cannot infer such conclusion.[10]

A second Ottone, son of Guido, is attested in the documentary sources between the years 1134 and 1192. The primary role of Ottone in the political life of the Milanese commune emerges in the period of the confrontation with Frederick Barbarossa: his name is the first to be cited, March 1, 1162, in the group of Milanese leaders surrendering to the emperor after the capitulation of the city that took place in the previous weeks.[11][12] A member of the following generation, Ariprando was bishop of Vercelli between 1208 and 1213, when he played also the role of Papal legate for Innocent III. An attempt to have him elected archbishop of Milan failed in 1212 amidst growing tensions between opposite factions inside the city. His death, in 1213, was probably caused by poisoning.[13]

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

March 1st 1162, Ottone Visconti is the first Milanese appearing in the list of authorities surrendering to the Barbarossa after the capitulation of the city (19th century engraving)

The family dispersed into several branches, some of which were entrusted fiefs far off from the Lombard metropolis; the one which gave the Medieval lords of Milan is said to be descended from Uberto, who died in the first half of 13th century. The members of the other branches added frequently to their surname the name of the place where they chose to live and where a castle was available for their residence. The first of such cases were the Visconti of Massino, the Visconti of Invorio and the Visconti of Oleggio Castello.[14] In these localities the castle (Massino), its remains (Invorio) or a later reconstruction of the initial building (Oleggio Castello) are still today visible.

Lords and Dukes of Milan

The Visconti ruled Milan until the early Renaissance, first as Lords, then, from 1395, with the mighty Gian Galeazzo who endeavored to unify Northern Italy and Tuscany, as Dukes. Visconti rule in Milan ended with the death of Filippo Maria Visconti in 1447. He was succeeded by a short-lived republic and then by his son-in-law Francesco I Sforza, who established the reign of the House of Sforza.[15][16]

Rise to the lordship

With the death of Frederick II in 1250 and the ceasing of the war of the Lombard League against him, which itself was a reason for the Milanese commune to be united in its defence, a period of conflicts between rivaling factions began inside the city. The Della Torre family progressively acquired power in Milan after 1240, when Pagano Della Torre assumed the leadership of the Credenza di Sant’Ambrogio, a political party with a popular base. This allowed them to have a role in the tax collection of the commune (estimo), which was essential to finance the war against Frederick II while affecting the great landowners. In 1247 Pagano was succeeded by his nephew Martino Della Torre. To underline the preeminence of his position, the new role of Senior of the Credenza (Anziano della Credenza) was created. In this position the Della Torre began to be confronted with the Milanese noble families organized in their own political party, the Societas Capitaneorum et Valvassorum, having the Visconti among the most prominent figures. After a period of unrest between the opposite parties, in 1258 the so called Sant’Ambrogio Peace was signed among the parties, strengthening the position of La Credenza and La Motta (a second political party with popular tendencies).[17][18]

The peace was undermined by new events in favour of the Della Torre. At the end of 1259, Oberto Pallavicino, a former partisan of Frederick II who got closer to the Guelph positions of the Della Torre, was appointed by the Milanese commune for five years in the role of General Captain of the People. Pallavicino’s position in Milan was greatly enhanced by the victory he obtained in the Battle of Cassanoon 16 September 1259, against Ezzelino da Romano, formerly his ally on the Ghibelline side in the war against Milan, the Lombard League and the Papacy. In Ezzelino the noble expelled from Milan during the clashes preceding the Sant’Ambrogio Peace placed their hopes to get back in the city to their old power. In 1264, when Pallavicino left his office (preparing another change of alliance), Martino Della Torre remained the sole ruler of Milan and de facto its Lord.[19][18][20]

A decisive event in the confrontation between the Della Torre and the Visconti factions was the appointment of Ottone Visconti to archbishop of Milan in 1262. Ottone was preferred by Pope Urban IV to Raimondo, another candidate member of the Della Torre family. Prevented from assuming his office and forced by the opposite faction to remain outside the city, Ottone tried to settle in Arona, at the border of the Milanese archdiocese. At the end of 1263, Della Torre forces with the support of Oberto Pallavicino dislodged him from Arona. Ottone sought refuge in central Italy near the pope. The Della Torre party under the guidance of Filippo Della Torre, brother of Martino and his successor after 1263, took advantage also of the favour of Charles of Anjou. Milan forged an alliance with him and with other northern Italian cities (Lega Guelfa) to fight the Hohenstaufen rule in southern Italy. Francesco Della Torre led the Milanese expedition in southern Italy, which ended in 1266 with the allied victory against Manfred of Sicily in the Battle of Benevento. Charles of Anjou became the new King of Sicily, having also an indirect rule (exercised through the Della Torre) on Milan.[21]

Trying to take advantage from the favourable moment, in 1266 the Della Torre made an attempt to advocate their cause against the Visconti in a concistory held by Pope Clement IV in Viterbo and attended by the archbishop Ottone. Despite the presence of a delegate of Charles of Anjou the decision of the pope was in favour of Ottone. An attempt was then made by the Pope to appease the Milanese factions by means of an oath of allegiance demanded to the Milanese population. Part of it was the acceptance of Ottone as archbishop. The events however were changed again by new circumstances in favour of the Della Torre. At the end of 1266 in Germany was taken the decision to support Conradin, the last member of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, in an attempt to recovery the domains in southern Italy lost after the defeat of Benevento and the death of Manfred of Sicily. This reinstated again the Della Torre in their position of leaders of the Lega Guelfa. Moreover, in 1268, Clement IV died, initiating a period of papal vacancy that left without practical consequences the dispositions in favour of Ottone.[22]

After the definitive end of the Hohenstaufen threat (Conradin was defeated and executed in Naples in 1268), the confrontation between the two Milanese factions assumed more and more a military connotation. A leading figure on the Visconti side was Simone Orelli da Locarno, whose military ability became legendary during the wars against Fredrick II. Notwithstanding this, being in favour of the Visconti, he was arrested in 1263 and jailed in Milan. In 1276 he was freed in the context of a compromise between the two factions about Como and after his promise of not acting against the Della Torre. He joined altogether the Visconti army assuming the role of General Captain. The Visconti forces took progressively advantage in the area of Lake Maggiore. In 1276 Tebaldo Visconti, nephew of Ottone, was captured with other leading figures of the Visconti forces. Brought to Gallarate, they were executed by beheading. The Visconti eventually defeated the Della Torre army in the decisive Battle of Desio on 27 January 1277, opening the way for Ottone to enter in Milan.[20]Napoleone, son of Pagano, was arrested with other Della Torre family members. He died in jail few months later. These events are generally considered to mark the foundation of the Visconti lordship on Milan.[23]

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

January 21st 1277, after the victory obtained against the Della Torre in Desio, the archbishop Ottone Visconti enters in Milan (14th century fresco in the Rocca Borromeo di Angera)

Ottone initially granted power in Milan to Simone Orelli, appointing him Captain of the People. In 1287, he transferred this role to his grandnephew Matteo Visconti (the son of Tebaldo executed in 1277), who one year later obtained also the title of Imperial vicar from the emperor Rudolf of Habsburg. Ottone died in 1295, leaving Matteo Lord of Milan. In 1302, the Della Torre took again the power, forcing Matteo to leave the city. After an intervention of Henry VII, appeasing the dispute between the two families, the lordship of the Visconti on Milan was definitely restored in 1311.[24][18][20]

Rulers and their families

Matteo, Galeazzo, Azzone, Luchino and Giovanni (1311-1354)

The reconciliation agreement with the Della Torre, reached in the December 1310 on the initiative of Henry VII, was attended by Matteo, his brother Uberto and their cousin Ludovico, also known as Lodrisio.[25] In the following years Matteo acted alone as Lord of Milan and after him the authority on the city and on a growing territory in northern and central Italy was assumed by seven members of his offspring along four generations. Matteo ruled for about eleven years, providing to his family the legal basis for the hereditary lordship on Milan and extending the territory under Milanese influence against the traditional opponents of the Visconti: the Della Torre and Anjoudynasties allied with the Papacy. After being accused of necromancyand heresy, he was excommunicated by the Church. In 1331, looking for a reconciliation, he transferred the power to his eldest son Galeazzo and left Milan for the Augustinian monastery of Crescenzago, where he died in 1323.[26]

After Matteo’s death, Galeazzo associated his brothers Marco, Luchino, Stefano, and Giovanni (a cleric) in the controls of the inherited domains. He died five years later, succeeded by his son Azzone, who ruled between 1329 and 1339. Stefano, married to Valentina Doria from Genoa, died in 1327 under unclear circumstances. He left three children: Matteo (Matteo II), Bernabò and Galeazzo (Galeazzo II). Marco felt in disgrace and was killed by hitmen in 1329. The deaths of two brothers restricted the future successions to Luchino, Giovanni (since 1342 archbishop of Milan) and the three sons of Stefano.[27]

During Azzone’s rule, Lodrisio (the cousin of Matteo who in 1310 attended the reconciliation with the Della Torre) raised against him trying to revert the line of succession in favour of his own family. He obtained the support of the Della Scala family of Verona, but in 1339, in the Battle of Parabiago, he was defeated by an army led by Azzone and backed by his uncles Luchino and Giovanni. When Azzone died, in 1339, the young age of his sons motivated the transfer of the power to his uncle Luchino, who ruled until his death in 1349. During this period the three sons of Stefano were suspected of a conspiracy against him. The archbishop Giovanni sent them away from Milan, saving them from the possible violent reaction of Luchino.[28]

Under Giovanni the territorial expansion continued (to Genoa and Bologna) as a result of his diplomacy. Part of his initiatives were the marriages of the sons of Stefano to members of the nearby noble dynasties of northern Italy: in 1340 Matteo II to Egidiola Gonzaga, in 1350 Bernabò to Regina Della Scala and Galeazzo II to Bianca of Savoy.[29][30] In 1353 Petrarch accepted an invitation of Giovanni and moved to Milan, where he lived until 1361. He took part to the diplomatic initiatives of the Visconti, providing in his letters first-hand accounts of his life in Milan and of Visconti family events.[31]

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

Petrarch lived in Milan from 1353 to 1361 providing in his letters first-hand accounts from the Visconti court (portrait by Altichiero da Verona)

Joint lordship of Matteo II, Bernabò and Galeazzo II (1354-1385)

On 5 October 1354 the archbishop Giovanni died. In his honour, few days after, Petrach held a commemorative oration. In the same month the three sons of Stefano agreed to share the power, dividing the Visconti domains according to geographic criteria. Matteo II died the following year and his territory was divided between Bernabò and Galeazzo II. The two brothers settled their courts separately: Bernabò in Milan, Galeazzo II in Pavia.[32][33]Through the marriages of their sons and daughters, Bernabò and Galeazzo II extended the Visconti relationships to a number of other European noble dynasties.

In 1360 Gian Galeazzo, the eldest son of Galeazzo II, married Isabelle of Valois, daughter of King John II of France. The marriage was the result of negotiation participated also by Petrarch with a journey to Paris[31] and leading the Visconti to contribute with 600,000 francs to the ransom paid by France to England to obtain the freedom of the King in an episode of the Hundred Years’ War.[34][35] Violante, the eldest daughter of Galeazzo II, married in 1368 Lionel of AntwerpDuke of Clarence, third son of King Edward III of England. After her husband’s death, only few months after the marriage, in 1377 Violante married Secondotto, Marquess of Montferrat. Remained again widow, in 1381 she married her cousin Lodovico, one of the sons of Bernabò.[36][37]

Bernabò and his wife Regina Della Scala had 15 children. Nine daughters (Taddea, Viridis, Valentina, Agnese, Antonia, Maddalena, Anglesia, Lucia, Elisabetta) married scions of other European dynasties, connecting the Visconti to the houses of Wittelsbach(Taddea, Maddalena, Elisabetta), Habsburg (Viridis), Poitiers-Lusignan(Valentina, Anglesia), Württemberg (Antonia), Gonzaga (Agnese), Kent (Lucia). Their sons Marco and Carlo married respectively Elisabeth of Bavaria and Beatrice of Armagnac. Caterina, another daughter of Bernabò, married in 1380 her cousin Gian Galeazzo, widow of Isabelle of Valois, who died in 1373 in Pavia while giving birth to her fourth child.[38]

When Galeazzo II died in 1378, his son Gian Galeazzo was the only heir of his half of the Visconti territories. Bernabò, being 28 years older than his nephew, tended to assume a leading role towards him. The two Visconti had different personalities and ruling styles: instinctive, bad tempered and establisher of a terror regime Bernabò; circumspect and relatively mild to his subjects Gian Galeazzo. In the following years the relationship between the two Visconti progressively deteriorated.[39][40]

Few months after the death of his wife and counselor, Bernabò was deposed by his nephew in a coup, probably prepared for years and kept secret. On 5 May 1385, accompanied by his generals (Jacopo dal Verme, Antonio Porro and Guglielmo Bevilacqua) and with an heavy armed escort, Gian Galeazzo moved from Pavia for an apparent pilgrimage journey to Santa Maria del Monte di Velate near Varese. The following day, passing by Milan, he arranged to meet Bernabò for what was expected to be a familiar greeting. Bernabò, unprotected, was intercepted and arrested. The coup led also to the arrest of two sons of Bernabò, who were accompanying him.

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

May 6th 1385, Bernabò Visconti is arrested by the men of his nephew Gian Galeazzo Visconti(19th century engrave)

The people living in the domains of Bernabò, firstly the Milanese, promptly submitted to Gian Galeazzo, an attitude widely attributed to their desire to abandon the ruthless regime under which they had been living. Incarcerated in his own castle at Trezzo sull’Adda, Bernabò died few months later after being submitted a poisoned meal.[41][42]

Gian Galeazzo, sole ruler and Duke of Milan (1385-1402)

The death of Bernabò left Gian Galeazzo the sole ruler of the Visconti territories. The sons of Bernabò arrested with him (Ludovico and Rodolfo) spent the rest of their life in jail; the three still free (Marco, Carlo and Mastino) lived far from Milan and never posed a threat to Gian Galeazzo. Only the Della Scala in Verona, the family of their mother, continued to support them, but they ended their life in exile, in Bavaria and in Venice, after having reached some agreement with their cousin. The younger and unmarried daughters of Bernabò (Anglesia, Lucia, Elisabetta) continued their life in Pavia under the care of their sister Caterina, the second wife of Gian Galeazzo, until their wedding.[43][44]

For his court, Gian Galeazzo preferred Pavia to Milan. There he continued to develop the renowned library of the castle and to support the local university. The relationship between Gian Galeazzo and the French royal family, interrupted by the death of his first wife Isabelle, was revived by their daughter Valentina, who married in 1389 Louis I, Duke of Orléans, brother of Charles VI, King of France. The three sons of Gian Galeazzo and Isabelle died before reaching adulthood.[45][46]

Gian Galeazzo and Caterina had two sons: Giovanni Maria in 1388 and Filippo Maria in 1392. In 1395 Gian Galeazzo obtained from the Emperor Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia, for the price of 100,000 florins, the title of Duke of Milan. During the years of his rule, the Visconti domains reached the greatest territorial extension in northern and central Italy. Of all the domains of the previous years only Genoa, ruled by the archbishop Giovanni, remained excluded. After a short disease, the plague or the gout, Gian Galeazzo died on 3 September 1402.[47][48]

Giovanni Maria and Filippo Maria (1402-1447)

The difficulties posed to the Visconti court by the unexpected death of Gian Galeazzo is revealed by the secrecy under which the news of his end was kept. The funeral was held a couple of months after his death. The two sons, being only 12 and 10 years old, remained under the care of their mother Caterina. A Council of Regency with a leading role of Facino Cane, one of the generals of Gian Galeazzo, was set up, but contrasts soon emerged inside it. In 1404 Giovanni Maria formally assumed power. Ruling under the influence of Facino Cane, he forced his mother to leave Milan for Monza. There, she ended in the hands of two of the illegitimate sons of Bernabò, who probably caused her death.[49][50]

With Giovanni Maria a period of political crisis began. The policy of Facino Cane, who for himself obtained the title of Count of Biandrate, favoured the local powers and led to the fragmentation of the territorial unity. Peripheral regions were lost to nearby powers. This situation ended in 1412 with the death of Facino Cane. Few months later a conspiracy against Giovanni Maria ended his reign and life. In the same year, his brother Filippo Maria married the widow of Facino Cane, the 42-year-old Beatrice of Tenda, taking advantage of a testamentary disposition in favour of any Visconti that would have married her. The marriage ended with the accusation of adultery to Beatrice, her incarceration and the sentence to death, carried out in the Binasco castle in 1418.[51]

In 1428 Filippo Maria secondly married Mary of Savoy, but they never had sons. In 1425 his mistress Agnese Del Maino gave birth to an illegitimate daughter, Bianca Maria. Considered by his father his only heir, she grew up with her mother in the Abbiategrasso and Cusagocastles.[52] In 1432 Bianca Maria was betrothed to Francesco Sforza, a condottiero of Filippo Maria. In 1441 she married him, granting him the succession of the Duchy of Milan. A sign of their marriage is visible today in the twin churches of Santa Maria Incoronata in Milan.[53]

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

The twin façades of Santa Maria Incoronata in Milan reveals the addition of a second church, erected by Bianca Maria Visconti as a sign of the indissolubility of her marriage to Francesco Sforza, builder of the original church

The heirs of Bianca Maria and Valentina, dukes of Milan (1450-1535)

After the death of Filippo Maria in 1447 and the short-lived Ambrosian Republic, in 1450 Francesco Sforza became the new Duke of Milan. Bianca Maria and her husband initiated a new dynasty that ruled Milan discontinuously until 1535.[54]

When Louis XII of France entered Milan in 1499 after the First Italian War, he leveraged on a clause of the marriage contract of his grandmother Valentina, the daughter of Gian Galeazzo, and assumed the title of Duke of Milan. After his death and the short rule of Maximilian Sforza (1512-1515), the Duchy was inherited by his son Francis I. After France was defeated by an Imperial-Spanish army in the Battle of Pavia in 1525, the rule on Milan was assumed again by a Sforza, Francesco II. His death and a new war led the Duchy of Milan in the hands of Philip II of Spain, bringing to an end the line of succession initiated by Ottone and Matteo Visconti.

Visconti rulers of Milan[15]

+Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

Visconti’s Lordship, 14th century

 

Visconti di Modrone

 Visconti di Modrone

Coat of arms of Visconti di Modrone

From Uberto Visconti (c. 1280–1315), brother of Matteo I Visconti, came the lateral branch of Dukes of Modrone. To this family belonged Luchino Visconti di Modrone, one of the most prominent film directors of Italian neorealist cinema.

Some members of this branch were:

Other members

Notes

  1. ^ Landulfi de Sancto Paolo Historia Mediolanensis, p. 31, rr. 33-35: « Otto autem Mediolanensis vicecomes cum multis pugnatoribus eiusdem regis in ipsa strage coruit in mortem, amarissimam hominibus diligentibus civitatem Mediolanensium et ecclesiam. »
  2. ^ Leonis Marsicani et Petri Diaconi Chronica Monasterii Casinensis, p. 780, rr. 37-40: « Hoc ubi Otto comes Mediolanensis perspexit, pro imperatore se ad mortem obiciens, equum suum contradidit; nec mora, a Romanis captus, et in Urbem inductus, minutatim concisus est, eiusque carnes in platea canibus devorandae relictae. »
  3. ^ Bishop of Ventimiglia (1251 – 1262).
  4. ^ Archbishop of Milan (1262), lord of Milan (1277-78) and (1282-85).
  5. ^ Console di giustizia in Milan (1236)).
  6. ^ Capitano del popolo of Milan (1287-1298), lord of Milan (1287-1302) e (1311-1322).
  7. ^ Lord of Milan (1322-1327).
  8. ^ Lord of Milan (1339-1349).
  9. ^ Archbishop of Milan (1339), lord of Milan (1339-1354), lord of Bologna and Genoa (1331-1354).
  10. ^ Podestà of Vercelli (1317) and Novara (1318-1320). Line of the Visconti di Modrone (marquesses of Vimodrone 1694, later Dukes of Vimodrone 1813) whose members include the film directors Luchino Visconti and Eriprando Visconti.
  11. ^ Lord of Milan (1329-1339).
  12. ^ Lord of Milan (1354-1355).
  13. ^ Lord of Milan (1354-1378).
  14. ^ Lord of Milan (1354-1385).
  15. ^ Presumed. Lord of Bologna (1355-1360).
  16. ^ Lord of Milan (1378-1395) and Duke of Milan (1395-1402).
  17. ^ Duke of Milan (1402-1412).
  18. ^ Duke of Milan (1412-1447).
  19. ^ Illegitimate, by Agnese del Maino; in 1441 married to Francesco I Sforza, later duke of Milan.

References

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b Tolfo, Maria Grazia; Colussi, Paolo (February 7, 2006). « Storia di Milano: I Visconti » [History of Milan: The Visconti]. Storia di Milano (in Italian). Milano. Retrieved September 16, 2010.
  2. ^ Biscaro (1911), p. 20-24
  3. ^ Filippini (2014), p. 33-42
  4. ^ Filippini (2014), pp. 44-45, 83
  5. ^ Keller, Hagen (1979). Adelsherrschaft und städtische Gesellschaft in Oberitalien: 9. bis 12. Jahrhundert. Bibliotek des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Rom (in German). 52. p. 207.
  6. ^ Conradi III. et filii eius Heinrici Diplomata, doc. 21
  7. ^ Filippini (2014), p. 58-65
  8. ^ Conradi III. et filii eius Heinrici Diplomata, doc. 20
  9. ^ Biscaro (1911), p. 28
  10. ^ Filippini (2014), p. 73-74
  11. ^ Filippini (2014), p. 100-101
  12. ^ Das Geschichtswerk des Otto Morena und seiner Fortsetzer über die Taten Friedrichs I. in der Lombardei, p. 152
  13. ^ Filippini (2014), p. 105-113
  14. ^ Filippini (2014), p. 62-63
  15. ^ Jump up to:a b c Hale, John Rigby (1981). A concise encyclopaedia of the Italian Renaissance. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 338–341, 352. OCLC 636355191.
  16. ^ Jump up to:a b Williams, George L. (1998). « Two: The Papal Families at the Close of the Middle Ages, 1200-1471 ». Papal genealogy: The families and descendants of the popes. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. pp. 33–35. ISBN 978-0-7864-0315-8. OCLC 301275208. Retrieved September 16, 2010.
  17. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 33-45
  18. ^ Jump up to:a b c Menant, François (2005). L’Italie des communes (1100-1350) (in French). Édition Belin. pp. 67, 111–112, 117–118.
  19. ^ Cognasso (2016), p. 45-51
  20. ^ Jump up to:a b c Jones, Philip (2004). The Italian City-State. From Commune to Signoria. Oxford University Press. pp. 520–521, 603, 619.
  21. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 56-62
  22. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 64-67
  23. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 67-71
  24. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 87-100, 109-124
  25. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 109-114
  26. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 125-131, 142-146, 152
  27. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 152-154, 163-164, 173-174
  28. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 189-190, 191-192, 207-210
  29. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 208, 210-213
  30. ^ Bueno de Mesquita (1941), p. 6-7
  31. ^ Jump up to:a b Wilkins, Ernest Hatch (1958). Petrarch’s eight years in Milan. Cambridge, Massachusetts.
  32. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 208, 235-236, 240
  33. ^ Bueno de Mesquita (1941), p. 8-9
  34. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 208, 255-256
  35. ^ Bueno de Mesquita (1941), p. 10
  36. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 256, 263
  37. ^ Bueno de Mesquita (1941), p. 12-13
  38. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 292-293, 283-284, 333-334
  39. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 284-285
  40. ^ Bueno de Mesquita (1941), p. 13-14
  41. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 289-302
  42. ^ Bueno de Mesquita (1941), p. 31-34
  43. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 333-334, 338
  44. ^ Bueno de Mesquita (1941), p. 144, 171
  45. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 325-326, 368-371
  46. ^ Bueno de Mesquita (1941), p. 63-68, 79-80, 105
  47. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 3119-323, 379-380
  48. ^ Bueno de Mesquita (1941), p. 173-175, 297-298
  49. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 3882-395
  50. ^ Bueno de Mesquita (1941), p. 298-301
  51. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 397-414, 415-416
  52. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 452-453, 457
  53. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 457, 484-486
  54. ^ Cognasso (2014), p. 528-540, 541-547
  55. ^ Visconti, Alessandro (1952). Storia di Milano (in Italian) (2 ed.). p. 275.
  56. ^ « Violante Visconti di Modrone – Vogue.it ». vogue.it. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
  57. ^ « The Story Behind the Italian Villa in Call Me By Your Name – Architectural Digest ». architecturaldigest.com. Retrieved 4 April2018.

Primary sources

  • Conradi III. et filii eius Heinrici Diplomata, edited by Friedrich Hausmann. Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Diplomata regum et imperatorum Germaniae (in German). 9. Vienna, Cologne, Graz: MGH. 1969.
  • Landulfi de Sancto Paolo Historia Mediolanensis, edited by Ludwig Bethmann and Philipp Jaffé. Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores (in folio) (in Latin). 20. Hannover: MGH. 1868. pp. 17–49.
  • Leonis Marsicani et Petri Diaconi Chronica Monasterii Casinensis, edited by Wilhelm Wattenbach. Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores (in folio) (in Latin). 7. Hannover: MGH. 1846. pp. 727–844.
  • Das Geschichtswerk des Otto Morena und seiner Fortsetzer über die Taten Friedrichs I. in der Lombardei, edited by Ferdinand Güterbock. Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores rerum Germanicarum, Nova series (SS rer. Germ. N.S.) (in German). 7. Berlin: MGH. 1930.

Secondary sources

  • Biscaro, Gerolamo (1911), « I maggiori dei Visconti, signori di Milano », Archivio Storico Lombardo, serie 4 (in Italian), 16: 5–76
  • Bueno de Mesquita, Daniel Meredith (1941). Giangaleazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan (1351–1402): A Study in the Political Career of an Italian Despot. Cambridge at the University Press. ISBN 0521234557.
  • Cognasso, Francesco (2014). I Visconti. Storia di una famiglia (in Italian) (2 ed.). Odaya. ISBN 9788862883061.
  • Filippini, Ambrogio (2014). I Visconti di Milano nei secoli XI e XII. Indagini tra le fonti (in Italian). Tangram Edizioni Scientifiche. ISBN 9788864580968.
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維斯孔蒂家族
Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan
Coat of arms of the House of Visconti (1395).svg
國家 義大利米蘭
先前王室 德拉·托雷家族
頭銜 米蘭公爵
創立 1277年
創立者 奧托內·維斯孔蒂
最後統治 菲利波·瑪麗亞·維斯孔蒂
解體 1447年
缺乏合法繼承人，頭銜被斯福爾扎家族繼承
分支
民族 義大利人
系列条目
意大利历史
意大利国徽
Flag of Italy.svg 意大利主题

維斯孔蒂家族（意大利語：Visconti），或譯維斯康堤、維斯康蒂，是一個中世紀至文藝復興早期的義大利貴族家族，該家族於1277年取代德拉·托雷家族成為米蘭領主，並於1395年被神聖羅馬帝國皇帝瓦茨拉夫四世封為米蘭公爵，家族統治米蘭直到1447年菲力波·瑪麗亞·維斯孔蒂去世，由於沒有留下合法男性子嗣，公爵頭銜被他的女婿弗朗切斯科一世·斯福爾扎繼承。該家族到現代仍有後裔，其中較著名的是義大利名導盧奇諾·維斯孔蒂。

家族起源

家族總是喜歡述說他們那具有傳奇色彩的起源故事（在當時，幻想的族譜及家族故事可說是蔚為風潮），比起那些傳奇故事，他們真正的起源可說是平淡無奇。

維斯孔蒂家族被認為是來自卡皮塔內家族（capitanei，即現今的卡塔內奧家族 )，該家族的米蘭大主教卡爾卡諾的蘭道爾弗被授予了caput plebis（拉丁語，意為人民之上，一種中世紀教會頭銜），從1157年的一份文件上可以知道維斯孔蒂擔任了馬爾里阿諾（Marliano，即現今的馬里亞諾科門塞）的市民官一職，編年史家加奧瓦諾·菲亞馬證實了這點。但早在數十年前的1070年，他們就獲得了子爵的頭銜，使他們的男性後代得以世襲繼承，Visconti在義大利文中就是子爵的意思，相信這是他們姓氏的由來[1]。維斯孔蒂家族也從12世紀起統治著馬西諾（Massino，現今馬西諾維斯孔蒂），一個位於馬焦雷湖旁的小鎮。

維斯孔蒂家族在之後分成了好幾個分支，有些分支的封地離倫巴底非常遠（例如從比薩共和國發跡，後成為薩丁尼亞島加盧拉統治者的一支），而較廣為人知，後來成為米蘭領主的分支據說都是翁貝托（Umberto，死於12世紀上半葉）的後裔。

米蘭統治者

斯福爾扎堡（維傑瓦諾）城牆上的維斯孔蒂家徽

在維斯孔蒂家族掌權前，德拉·托雷家族是米蘭的統治者，1262年，家族成員奧托內·維斯孔蒂被教宗烏爾巴諾四世擢升為米蘭大主教，他的姪子特奧巴爾多（Teobaldo）於1271年成為了教宗格雷戈里十世，更加提升了家族勢力。1277年，奧托內聯合其他小諸侯的對抗下，德拉·托雷家族被推翻[2]，奧托內掌權，維斯孔蒂家族開始統治米蘭，奧托內採取支持貴族的策略，用以鞏固自身及整個家族的統治，可惜好景不常，德拉·托雷家族的圭多·德拉·托雷於1302年擊敗奧托內的姪子馬特奧一世·維斯孔蒂，並將之流放，德拉·托雷復辟，不過他沒有統治多久，就因煽動人民對抗神聖羅馬帝國皇帝亨利七世而被迫逃亡，馬特奧一世則在亨利七世的支持下，回到米蘭繼續掌權，並被任命為帝國代理人，他將勢力擴張至帕維亞及克雷莫納。[3]

馬特奧一世的孫子，阿佐內·維斯孔蒂（1302－1339）在位時期藉由協調領地內各種政治關係而奠定了維斯孔蒂家族在倫巴底區域的統治基礎，而馬特奧的兒子喬凡尼·維斯孔蒂 (米蘭大主教)在位時期（1349－1354）控制了熱那亞與波隆那。[3]

馬特奧的另一位孫子，貝爾納波·維斯孔蒂（1354－1385在位）與羅馬最殘暴的皇帝不相上下，對這位統治者而言，最重要的國家大事是狩獵野豬，誰要是敢阻撓他必受嚴酷的刑罰，他在夫人於1384年過世時，甚至發布命令要他的臣民為她服喪一年，他最後被自己的姪子兼女婿吉安·加萊亞佐·維斯孔蒂囚禁並很可能被毒死。[4]

吉安·加萊亞佐·維斯孔蒂與他的兒子喬凡尼·瑪麗亞·維斯孔蒂可說是典型的暴君統治（1404年喬凡尼·瑪麗亞甚至囚杀了自己的亲生母亲），但也不可忽略他們對米蘭公國擴張的貢獻，吉安·加萊亞佐的管理方式深受神聖羅馬帝國皇帝瓦茨拉夫四世欣賞，並於1395年獲封為米蘭公爵，他將維斯孔蒂家族的勢力帶向鼎盛，也娶到法國公主為妻。他於1399年取下比薩及錫耶納，並於隔年取下佩魯賈及翁布里亞的一些城鎮，於1402年與波隆那結盟，當時整個義大利北部及中部幾乎都陷入他的掌控中，勉強保持獨立的佛羅倫斯也在米蘭大軍的包圍下岌岌可危[4]，在他的統治下，米蘭成為支配北義大利的強權，並藉著戰爭、婚姻聯盟、靈活外交把米蘭從一個義大利城邦轉變為歐洲強權。[3]

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

1402年英主吉安·加萊亞佐·維斯孔蒂死前的最大版圖（綠色與淡綠色區塊），當時米蘭幾乎統一義大利中北部，原本的強國威尼斯、佛羅倫斯、教宗國都被壓縮至很小區域

綜觀他一生的成就，對外政策上大膽、精明、吉星高照；內政管理上積極、公道、寬宏大量。他延聘著名法學家修改米蘭的各種章程，彙編成一部法典。他啟用有才幹的人組成政府、管理國家，尤其是內政部高效率的工作品質。在其他城市，他也大力加強和集中公國的行政管理，組成統一、直屬於他的行政機關，並由上述中央政府協助領導。趁著天主教會大分裂（1378-1417年）的有利時機，他維護國家對教士擁有的權力，即有權任命神職人員，教廷只能加以確認；禁止接受未經他批准的教會采邑。他建設巨大豪華的公共工程來擄獲民心、促進工業、藝術文化的發展，如1386年的米蘭大教堂，為義大利最大的教堂。[5]

但是，1402年蔓延的大瘟疫，結束了吉安·加萊亞佐的55歲生命、拯救了被包圍的佛羅倫斯，也讓他成為整個義大利北部國王的可能性消失了。他死後，家族霸權又因繼位的長子吉安·瑪麗亞·維斯孔蒂精神病發而暫時破滅，直到1412年次子菲利波·瑪麗亞·維斯孔蒂繼承後才重建了米蘭，但維斯孔蒂擴張的野心引來威尼斯、佛羅倫斯和教宗國的聯盟壓制，統一北義大利的可能性徹底斷絕。[5]

統治終結

菲利波·瑪麗亞·維斯孔蒂的銅製肖像，皮薩內羅製

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

1412-1494年的義大利，威尼斯共和國（亮綠色）在吉安·加萊亞佐死後向西反擊，奪回威尼托並在倫巴底東側壓制了維斯孔蒂的霸權，但1421年維斯孔蒂重新控制熱那亞（亮黃色）之後，與威尼斯聯盟展開30餘年的爭霸戰，直到1454年洛迪和約才結束了兩方的消耗戰，此時的米蘭公國改由斯福爾扎家族領導

在吉安·加萊亞佐的次子菲利波·瑪麗亞·維斯孔蒂於1447年去世後，由於沒有留下合法的繼承人，米蘭宣布成立安布羅西亞共和國，此時，菲利波·瑪麗亞的私生女比安卡·瑪麗亞·維斯孔蒂的丈夫，雇傭兵弗朗切斯科一世·斯福爾扎密謀與蒙菲拉托侯爵古列爾莫八世·帕雷歐羅哥以及威尼斯聯合推翻共和國並奪取政權。1450年，在連續數年的飢荒和動亂後，米蘭共和議會決定任命弗朗切斯科為米蘭公爵。雖然義大利各國逐漸承認其公爵地位，但弗朗切斯科卻始終沒能得到神聖羅馬帝國的正式授權。這一情況一直持續到1494年，神聖羅馬帝國皇帝馬克西米利安一世才正式授予弗朗切斯科之子盧多維科·斯福爾扎米蘭公爵的封號。

由於在1392年，米蘭統治者吉安·加萊亞佐·維斯孔蒂的女兒瓦倫蒂娜·維斯孔蒂嫁給了奧爾良公爵路易一世，這給了路易一世的孫子，法國國王路易十二入侵義大利更多的理由，他聲稱自己才是合法的米蘭公爵繼承者，而非斯福爾扎家族。

現存的分支

維斯孔蒂家族蒙德羅內系的徽章

馬特奧一世的弟弟烏貝爾托（Uberto，1280?－1315）發展出了維斯孔蒂家族蒙德羅內系，這個支系的卡羅·維斯孔蒂·迪·蒙德羅內於1813年3月5號被拿破崙授予蒙德羅內公爵的頭銜，在他死後頭銜傳至他的堂弟烏貝爾托（Uberto，1802－1850），義大利新現實主義名導盧奇諾·維斯孔蒂是他的後代。

家族徽章

米蘭的維斯孔蒂的家族徽章上是一條龍頭蛇身的怪物，這個徽章的故事可追溯至西元6世紀入侵並定居在義大利北部的倫巴底人，他們相信藍底配上一隻蛇能帶來好運，並將這圖案用於他們的戰旗上。而當馬特奧一世·維斯孔蒂於1295年成為米蘭領主時，他虛構了一個家族的傳奇故事，並將故事與倫巴底人做連結，故事有好幾種版本，其中一種較為常見的是說西元5世紀時，米蘭出現了一隻龍形蛇怪，名為比修內，這個怪物威脅著米蘭居民的安全，而馬特奧一世的倫巴底人祖先烏貝爾托（Uberto）斬殺了這個怪物解救了居民，馬特奧一世命令畫師為他設計一個比修內的圖騰，將之作為家族徽章，相信他這麼做的原因是為了自己的統治正當與權威性。如今比修內的圖案已遍及米蘭，來自米蘭的車廠愛快羅密歐也將之加入了標誌中而國際米蘭足球俱樂部則於1928－1929短暫的使用過這個標誌作為隊徽。[6]

較常見的圖案形式是比修內正在吞噬一名孩童或是薩拉森人，有時圖案上方會配戴皇冠，代表維斯孔蒂家族統治的正當性。

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

Giacobbe Giusti, VISCONTI of Milan

相關條目

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visconti_of_Milan

https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B6%AD%E6%96%AF%E5%AD%94%E8%92%82%E5%AE%B6%E6%97%8F

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com